Ch.12-15

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CHAPTER Toward the Baroque THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION INITIATED A LONG and tragic period of re- ligious warfare during which Protestants stormed Catholic churches to destroy beautiful works of art and musical instruments they considered profane, and Catholics used the infamous court of the Inquisition to condemn dissenters. With feelings running equally high among Protestants in the north and Catho- lics in the south, the cool, detached emotional atmosphere of the Renaissance gave way to the vivid, passionate expression of the affections, the Baroque term for human emotions or states of the soul. ARTISTIC STYLE Artists increasingly discarded the boundaries controlling expression in art, enhancing their new dramatic approach with quite unrealistic distortion and exaggeration of gures and their features. Even Michelangelo, whose early paintings and sculptures exemplify grace, serenity, and balance, responded in his later years to the political, social, and ecclesiastical changes of the sixteenth century. Whereas his David, nished about 1504 (see Figure 9.4), depicts a con- dent young man poised and at peace with himself, The Young Slave of 1513 (Figure 12.1) twists in a terrible struggle to break the bonds constraining him. Michelangelo’s late fresco The Last Judgment (1534–1541) (Figure 12.2), seems the very antithesis of the serene painting he had applied to the ceiling of the Sistine chapel many years earlier. Another famous artist who developed an emotional and personal style is known as El Greco (The Greek), due to his birth on the island of Crete, though he spent most of his life in Spain. El Greco (1541–1614), whose unrealistically elongated gures stretch expressively toward heaven, painted not only his models’ faces and gures but their very souls and personalities. Sometimes referred to as manner- ism, El Greco’s style de es labels, but its drama, emotion, and mysticism are closer to the Baroque than to the Renaissance (Figure 12.3). MUSIC At the end of the sixteenth century, some composers continued to prefer the Renaissance style while others propounded revolutionary ideas in articles, THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE AFFECTIONS René Descartes who articulated the theory of the a ff ections declared that “there are only six simple and primitive passions wonder love hate desire joy and sadness All the others are com posed of some of these six or are species of them ” Do you agree or disagree with this? Can you sug gest how each of Descartes’ “simple and primitive passions” might be expressed in music? Consider the elements of music and changes in dynamic level and in tempo for example
CHAPTER TOWARD THE BAROQUE discussions, and new types of musical compositions. Several Italian cities, po- litically independent and economically diverse, developed signi cant individual styles during this time. In Florence, for example, a group of intellectuals known as the Florentine Camerata (a society or fellowship) found existing vocal forms unsuited to the effective presentation of a text. The use of the same melody for several verses of a strophic song belied any relationships between words and music. And the combinations of melodic lines in the polyphonic madrigals interfered with understanding the text. The Florentines envisioned a style of melody based on the ideals, as they under- stood them, of the ancient Greeks: melody approximating spoken in ections in the dramatic declamation of a text, accompanied with simple instrumental chords that supported, but never interfered with, the vocal delivery of the text. Their melodic compositions thus implied homophonic texture, soon to become one of the impor- tant musical innovations of the Baroque. Venetian Polychoral Music In Venice, the center of much secular as well as religious activity, the beautiful church of St. Mark was designed on the plan of a cross, with a full organ in each of the two opposing arms. Solemn and festive occasions were celebrated at the great church, which, by its architectural design, lent itself to the performance of music by several spatially separated choirs of voices and/or instruments (Figure 12.4). Called polychoral music, this festive style contributed to the pomp and pageantry of cel- ebrations of every kind. (The several terms for various ensembles can be confusing. We’ve learned, for example, that Renaissance groups of instruments from the same family were called consorts, but today we sometimes use the term choir, usually asso- ciated with vocal ensembles, to express the same concept, as in a “brass choir .” Thus polychoral refers to music for several groups of vocal and/or instrumental choirs.) FIGURE Michelangelo The Last Judgment Christ directs the good souls on his right toward heaven while the wicked on his le plunge to hell Fresco feet m Sistine Chapel Vatican Rome FIGURE Michelangelo The Young Slave
PART THREE THE BAROQUE Two characteristics of the Venetian polychoral style bore particular signi cance for future generations of composers: 1. The several choirs of four or more voices and instruments each, when performing simultaneously, were better served by a chordal texture than by the complex polyphony of the Renaissance. Venetian polychoral works therefore include large sections with massive chordal combinations, vertically conceived, and moving in a chordal fashion. The concept was still modal, but it pointed toward the homophonic texture of much tonal music in the Baroque. 2. Contrasting sonorities of various voices and instruments, and of large and small ensembles, had strong appeal to the Baroque imagination. Known as the concertato principle, this was destined to become one of the underlying concepts of the Baroque style, as we shall see. GIOVANNI GABRIELI Giovanni Gabrieli, a famous organist, teacher, and composer, wrote many com- positions for St. Mark’s basilica, where he also participated in performances. He wrote motets for two to ve choirs (of voices and/or instruments), which con-chair-tah’-toh Gah-bree-el’-ee FIGURE El Greco Resurrection of Christ Museo del Prado Madrid Spain FIGURE St Mark’s basilica in Venice The glorious sounds of vocal and instrumental choirs performing polychoral music resounded from choir galleries variously located around the spacious interior of this famous church
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responded to one another from various positions in the church. The vocal choirs usually were accompanied by an organ, by string instruments such as the viol, or by brass instruments such as cornets or trombones. Gabrieli wrote one polychoral instrumental piece of particular historical inter- est. Even its title, Sonata pian 9 e forte, was innovative. At that time, the word so- nata indicated a piece to be played on instruments rather than sung; but the idea of contrasting piano (soft) and forte (loud) passages was relatively new, having been of little signi cance to serene Renaissance music. These dynamic terms appear not only in the title of Gabrieli’s piece but throughout the score; piano generally indicates those sections to be played by one choir alone, and forte those sections to be played by combined ensembles. Such contrasting dynamic levels were to become a highly important characteristic of Baroque music. Gabrieli’s sonata (Listening Example 15), scored for two choirs of instruments, is also the rst known piece specifying which instrument was to play each line of music. Here each choir is a broken consort, meaning that it contains one in- strument of a timbre different from the others in the group. By indicating that one choir consisted of three trombones and a cornetto (an ancient instrument similar to a recorder and played with a trumpet mouthpiece), and the other of three trombones and a viola, Gabrieli foretold the style-conscious Baroque, when composers were to write consistently for speci c voices and instruments. THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT CHANGING STYLES The late sixteenth century was one of several periods in which the arts experienced a gradual transition from one style to another Today prevalent artistic styles change rapidly and numerous contrasting styles are concurrently significant Can you suggest some social political religious and techno logical developments that have encouraged this multiplicity of artistic styles? Sonata pian 9 e forte COMPOSER Giovanni Gabrieli DATE GENRE Polychoral brass piece PRELUDE TO LISTENING When Gabrieli published a collection of vocal and instrumen tal works in under the title Sacrae Symphoniae Sacred Symphonies little could he have anticipated the infl uence the Sonata pian 9 e forte would have The use of two spatially separated choirs of instruments that both competed and joined in agreement at regular intervals throughout the piece heralded what would be come one of the most common principles in the approaching Baroque era in music that of expressive dynamic and timbral contrast Although specifying which instru ments would play which parts does not seem innovative to us today instrumental works before this time le this choice to the performers probably because not all churches possessed the same types of instruments or adequate performers at all times The brilliance of the contrasting and combined timbres of the two brass choirs along with our visual image of the resplendent gold mosaic interior of the St Mark’s basilica create an image of the sumptuous ceremonies that took place in one of Europe’s important centers of trade at this time WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Two brass choirs cornetto and three trombones in one so er brass instrument and three trombones in the other contrasting timbres and dynamics alternating and combined choirs syncopation LISTENING EXAMPLE CHOIR I Choir I opens the piece playing piano (so ). A solo trombone introduces the first of 3 four-measure phrases. Notice that the timbre of the ensemble is colored brightly by the cornetto that plays the highest part.
PART THREE THE BAROQUE CHOIR II Choir II plays 3 four-measure phases, again piano. The more mellow timbre of this choir re- sults from the lower pitches of the melody and the fact that the highest part is performed by a so er brass instrument imitating the sound of the viola called for in the original score. COMBINED CHOIRS The combined choirs perform the next sec- tion, achieving a louder dynamic level. The quicker notes of running passages add to the drama. ALTERNATING CHOIRS The conversational exchanges between the choirs grow quicker through this section, al- though all passages are still performed piano. COMBINED CHOIRS The choirs join in a brief forte exclamation. ALTERNATING CHOIRS Choirs alternate at a piano dynamic level. COMBINED CHOIRS The combined choirs play forte. ALTERNATING CHOIRS The choirs again alternate, piano. SYNCOPATED STATEMENTS Syncopated, fanfare-like statements by each choir alternate piano and forte dynamic levels. QUICK CONTRASTS Bold forte statements by both choirs are con- trasted with piano statements by single choirs as the pace of the exchanges speeds up. HEIGHTENED RHYTHMIC ACTIVITY Increased use of shorter note values makes the music seem to move faster. The sense of heightened activity is enhanced by occa- sional sharp dissonances. FINAL FORTE This splendid piece ends with a slowing of rhythmic activity as both choirs join in a final forte proclamation. During the late sixteenth century, as a desire for drama and personal expression in art replaced classical ideals, musicians and other artists foretold in their works the style we call Baroque. Painters and sculptors used distortion and exaggeration to create dramatic effects, while musicians cultivated a newly emotional approach to their art. Florentine composers conceived a new kind of song, with simple melody and chordal accompaniment, intended to most effectively present a text. Venetian composers exploited the concertato principle, writing grand polychoral works that contrasted sonorities and dynamic levels, producing a stunning effect. Both the Florentine songs and the Venetian polychoral style implied a new texture of music eventually known as homophony. The increasing importance of instrumen- tal music and the speci cation of which instrument was to play each part, as in Gabrieli’s Sonata pian 9 e forte, were also signs of a coming change. By the turn of the seventeenth century, the Baroque period was well under way.
CHAPTER TOWARD THE BAROQUE a ff ections polychoral music concertato principle sonata Artists Michelangelo El Greco (Domenikos Theototokopoulos) Composer Giovanni Gabrieli
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CHAPTER The Baroque: General Characteristics EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CLASSICISTS APPLIED THE TERM baroque, meaning odd, irregular, rough, or uneven (as in “baroque pearl”), to the period succeeding the Renaissance, which musicians date from about 1600 to about 1750. Unlike the serenely balanced works of the Renaissance, the new art teems with drama and with contrast. Yet the very qualities the Classicists found so strange afford us rich pleasure and inspiration today. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE The Baroque vigorously af rmed both sides of almost any question. For example, religion profoundly affected the literature, philosophy, science, art, and music of the period: Milton’s Paradise Lost, Bernini’s adornment of St. Peter’s church in Rome, the Passions of J. S. Bach, and the oratorios of Handel all expressed strong personal religious faith. Yet the secular side of life had more signi cance than ever before in the Christian era, and much Baroque art had a decidedly popular character. Similarly, scienti c research made great strides during the seventeenth century, yet superstition remained rampant, and the belief in witchcraft, alchemy, and astrol- ogy held rm. Science and religion, knowledge and faith—all had their place in the colorful, dramatic, style-conscious period we call the Baroque. Religion The controversy between Catholics and Protestants far exceeded anything envi- sioned or desired by either Martin Luther or John Calvin. Long and terrible reli- gious wars having left southern and central Europe largely Roman Catholic and the northern countries largely Protestant, the center of intellectual activity moved north, out of reach of the Spanish and Italian Inquisitions. In England, however, Anglicans mercilessly harassed the Puritans, who sought to “purify” the church and espoused many Calvinist ideals. Large numbers of these dissenters sailed to the New World to escape their tormentors and pursue spiri- tual, though not yet political, independence. Even more violently persecuted were the Separatists, including the Pilgrims and Quakers, who abandoned the Anglican church entirely. The rst book printed in America (1640) was a psalter, popularly
CHAPTER THE BAROQUE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS known as the Bay Psalm Book, designed for use by the Pilgrims, Puritans, and other psalm-singing colonists. Science and Philosophy The day in 1564 when Michelangelo died also witnessed the birth of the great sci- entist Galileo Galilei. The son of an in uential member of the Florentine Camerata, Galileo loved the arts; but he found his true calling in the rapidly expanding world of scienti c research and discovery. He fell victim, however, to one of the most curious contradictions of the seventeenth century when his scienti c discoveries ran headlong into a rigid wall of religious dogma. The church steadfastly refused to accept that the earth—the “center of the universe”—in fact revolved around the sun. Galileo’s sophisticated instruments supported his contention, but the Inquisi- tion supported the church, forcing Galileo to recant. On the day in 1642 when the Italian Galileo died, the English scientist Isaac Newton was born. Fascinated, like Galileo, with the relationships between planets and stars, Newton studied the effects of gravity and performed important experi- ments on the measurement of time. His studies of the pendulum eventually led to advances in measuring time in music, including the invention, over a hundred years later, of the metronome. Many other seventeenth-century scientists also invented new instruments and improved old ones for the purposes of observing, measuring, and recording sci- enti c data. As Galileo and Newton contemplated the circulation of heavenly bodies, the Englishman William Harvey studied the circulation of the blood. And in keeping with the Baroque appreciation for opposite extremes, both the tele- scope and the microscope were inventions of the period. Other outstanding g- ures of the time included the English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon and the Frenchman René Descartes, the epitome of the thinking man. Descartes’ phil- osophical statement, “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”) is frequently quoted today. ARTISTIC STYLE The art of the Baroque teems with tension, drive, activity. Baroque painters often direct the viewer’s eye right off the canvas, as if resisting, in the romantic way, the boundaries of measured space. Sculpted gures no longer pose with classical grace and poise but seethe with tension and strain, caught in the midst of some dramatic action. Baroque buildings jut and protrude, projecting a sense of dra- matic instability, and the decorative ornamentation of the period is so elaborate and complex that it is almost dizzying in effect (Figure 13.1). Literature Baroque literature, which like the other arts sought to achieve maximum emo- tional impact, included one of the greatest novels of all time, Don Quixote de la Mancha, by the Spaniard Miguel de Cervantes. The novel’s two main characters exemplify Baroque contradictions: the spiritual, whimsical Don Quixote ignores or simply transcends reality, whereas the earthy Sancho Panza prefers the practical to the ideal. France, basking under the bene cent patronage of the Sun King, Louis XIV, ex- celled in the production of dramatic works. The comedies of the great playwright Molière poked unbridled fun at the foibles and hypocrisies of contemporary French society, and his stage designs and special effects provided the visual thrills Baroque audiences adored. Re-nay’ Day-cart’
PART THREE THE BAROQUE Painting Seventeenth-century painters shared with contemporary scientists a fascination with the properties and effects of light, contriving brilliant effects that lend high drama to their works. Often a shaft of light streams from a window, an open door- way, or an unseen source, illuminating an object or gure surrounded by deep shadows. In one famous painting, The Conversion of St. Paul (Figure 13.2), the Ital- ian painter Caravaggio (a murderer in real life) captures the very moment when Saul, blinded by a heavenly light as he heard the Lord call his name, has fallen from his horse, his servant looking on in astonishment. The works of the northern artists Frans Hals, Rembrandt van Rijn, Jan Vermeer, and Peter Paul Rubens share many characteristics of style and technique with the religious paintings of the Italian Baroque. But while religious subjects dominated the art of Catholic Italy and other southern and central European countries, the artists of the Protestant Netherlands produced art for their homes, of which they were very proud, instead of the church, where Calvinists considered art to be idol- atrous. The late seventeenth century was an age of the eye for Netherlander artists as well as scientists: the telescope and the microscope revealed what previously had been beyond normal sight, and the Dutch masters proved especially gifted at painting light and all its effects. FIGURE Monastery Church Melk Austria an example of Baroque architecture
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CHAPTER THE BAROQUE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Sculpture One of the greatest sculptors of the Baroque period, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598–1680), was also a ne painter, architect, dramatist, and composer. In vivid contrast to Michelangelo’s David (see Figure 9.4), who quietly contemplates in the Renaissance way the action he plans to take, Bernini catches his David (Figure 13.3) in the very act of hurling his stone at Goliath. An even more dramatic example of the Baroque ability to capture a violent event in progress is Bernini’s Apollo and Daphne (Figure 13.4). According to a Greek myth, as Apollo frantically pursued the lovely nymph, her father, the river god, changed her into a laurel tree at the moment of impending capture. In Bernini’s romantic rendition of this classical subject, we see Daphne transformed before our very eyes. MUSIC The composer’s status continued to evolve, as the seventeenth century witnessed the opening of the rst public opera house and the presentation of the rst public concerts. Soon composers were devoting as much attention to secular music as to works intended for performance in church, and even some of their sacred compo- sitions were conceived more for concerts than for worship services. Bair-nee’-nee FIGURE Caravaggio The Conversion of St Paul FIGURE Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini David
PART THREE THE BAROQUE No longer able to depend exclusively on a small, aristocratic audience, composers increasingly sought public approval. The church, the courts, and the city-state governments remained artists’ primary employers. Yet some composers resisted the customary submission to the taste and will of a patron. George Frideric Handel, whose own rst love was opera, nally abandoned his secure position as a court musician in order to compose operas and oratorios for the English public. Johann Sebastian Bach went to prison for a month in de ance of his patron’s refusal to release him from service. Contrasts The music of the Baroque is rich in the contrasts and contradictions characteristic of seventeenth-century life. Secular music became equal in quantity and quality to music for the church. The period produced as many ne instrumental compositions as vocal works. Further, contrasts of timbre, alternation of free and metered rhythms, and abrupt changes of dynamic levels are typical of the style. Appreciation for contrasts also led to new kinds of multimovement works—that is, works consisting of semi-independent sections called movements. Each movement has its own formal design, but each is conceived—much like one act of a play or one chapter of a book—as only one part of a whole. Movements generally contrast with one an- other in tempo, mood, key, melodic material, texture, and perhaps tim- bre and other characteristics as well. However, according to the Baroque doctrine of the affections, only one mood (affection) should be expressed within one composition, or within one movement of a multimovement work. (In performance, one movement usually is separated from an- other by a pause, but the audience customarily does not applaud until the entire work is completed, so as not to interrupt the continuity of a large composition.) The sonata, concerto, symphony, and dance suite are examples of multimovement works. L I S T E N I N G T O A R T The Baroque architecture painting and sculpture shown in this chapter reveal several ways in which artists in variousmedia shared stylisticideals with contem porary composers The busy lines and ornate decoration in the Melk Monastery Church Figure may be compared to the highly ornamented polyphonic lines characteristic of much Baroque music The religious fervor and personal nature of the divine communication portrayed in Caravaggio’s painting Fig ure David’s bulging muscles and veins as he twists his body frowns in concentration and bites his lips in the strain of violent activity Figure and the manner in which Bernini unrestrained by emotional or physical boundaries seems to have simply denied the technical limitations of working with marble Figure all reflect dramatic emotional technical and expressive charac teristics of the great music of the Baroque FIGURE Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini Apollo and Daphne
CHAPTER THE BAROQUE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Texture Contrasting textures assumed unprecedented signi cance during the Baroque. The Venetian polychoral style and other recent music having demonstrated the harmonic and dramatic potential of homophony—a melody in one voice sup- ported by harmony in the others—Baroque composers gave homophony equal importance with polyphonic texture. This new concept of texture in music constituted a profound change from the music of earlier periods. You will recall the linear polyphony of the Middle Ages and the imitative polyphony of the Renaissance: in both, despite increasing appreciation for the sounds resulting from the combination of music lines, each line retained its melodic signi cance. This remained true even in the passages of Renaissance music moving in “chordal style,” with syllables of text occurring simultaneously in all of the voices. Although the Baroque bass line, as we shall see, had strong melodic implica- tions even in homophonic sections, it served primarily to support the harmonies underlying the principal melody. The inner voices merely enhanced the har- monic effects. Further re ecting their new vertical, or harmonic, orientation, composers now purposefully contrasted polyphonic sections with passages in homophonic style. Rise of Tonality By the end of the Renaissance, two of the modes—those beginning on A and C—were being used more often than the others; but it was not until the sev- enteenth century that composers developed and theoreticians articulated the tonal system, in which every note of the major or minor scale bears a speci c relationship to every other note, and all the pitches are more or less closely related to the tonic. It was at this time that composers recognized and utilized the chord we call a triad as an entity; no longer the result of a combination of passing voice lines, it became a meaningful and consonant unit of sound. The increasing use of triads built on all the degrees of the major or minor scale gave a sense of stability and harmonic direction to tonal music that had not been inherent in modality. Thus the tonal system of harmony, implied in some early English music and approached by composers in the late Renaissance, was wholly adopted during the seventeenth century. By the late 1600s, tonality had replaced modality as the means of organizing the composition of Western music. THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT MODES Why do you suppose that the modes we recognize as the major and minor scales came to be pre ferred over the other modes for a very long historical period? How do the major and minor modes sound di ff erent from each other? From the other modes? Why do you think many composers today use modal instead of or as well as tonal ef fects in their music? The preferred style of music during the seventeenth and the rst part of the eigh- teenth centuries was the dramatic, emotional style we call Baroque. During this age of contrasts, secular art assumed equal importance with religious works, as scientists and philosophers vied with clerics for the attention and faith of the peo- ple. Paintings of this period were vivid in color and lled with activity; sculpture and architecture also were dramatic instead of serene. Literature, too, achieved a strong emotional impact. By the late seventeenth century, the Baroque style of music had fully evolved; the replacement of modality by the tonal system of harmony affected every aspect of music composition. As concerned with harmonic as with melodic as- pects of their music, Baroque composers organized their works “vertically” as well as “horizontally.”
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PART THREE THE BAROQUE Baroque movement tonal system Scientists Galileo Galilei Isaac Newton William Harvey Philosophers Francis Bacon René Descartes Literary figures Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin) Artists Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi) Frans Hals Rembrandt van Rijn Jan Vermeer Peter Paul Rubens Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini Composers Johann Sebastian Bach George Frideric Handel
CHAPTER Dramatic Music of the Baroque AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY even composers who ex- ploited expressive characteristics in their solo madrigals and other secular songs often found Palestrina’s polyphonic style of composition more suitable than ex- pressive homophonic songs for church music. Thus, in the style-conscious manner of the Baroque, they used the old style (Palestrina’s) for one purpose and the new style (dramatic solo songs introduced by the Florentine Camerata) for another. The composer who referred to these two styles respectively as the “ rst” and “second” practices of music was Claudio Monteverdi, whose music was admired in his own time and is still performed and appreciated today. CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI For thirty years, Monteverdi served as choirmaster at St. Mark’s in Venice, where Giovanni Gabrieli had composed and performed his great works in the Venetian polychoral style. As choirmaster, Monteverdi composed motets and other reli- gious compositions using Renaissance techniques. However, Monteverdi also created dramatic and emotional settings of madrigal texts. Composers had long used dissonant combinations for dramatic emphasis but had accepted certain conventions regarding their use: dissonances were to be approached and resolved according to rather strict rules. Monteverdi often startled his contempo- raries by using dissonance for purely expressive purposes, allowing the texts of his songs, rather than the prevailing rules of music theory, to determine its use. Monteverdi suggested that the conventional rules constituted the first practice of music and should be respected in the composition of serious or conservative pieces; but he considered the second practice, as he called his dramatic style of madrigal composition, more suitable for the setting of secular songs. FIRST AND SECOND PRACTICE By rst practice (sometimes called the stile antico ), Monteverdi meant Palestrina’s style of choral polyphony, in which all the voices were nearly equal in importance and the music, although sensitive to the expression of a text, was nevertheless the Mon-te-vair’-dee
PART THREE THE BAROQUE composer’s priority. Many musicians continued to nd this style appropriate for church music, for two reasons: 1. The texts of religious compositions, usually taken from familiar biblical or liturgical sources, were easily recognized, even in a complex polyphonic setting. 2. The cool emotional atmosphere of this style was considered to enhance worship. Many of the same composers, however, having the Baroque love of drama, often reversed the relation- ship between music and text in their secular songs, allowing the emotional content of the words to deter- mine the means of expression. This expressive style, which Monteverdi referred to as the second practice or the stile moderno, was generally homophonic in tex- ture (Table 14.1). Thus, according to the rst practice, in which the music was more signi cant than the text, the established rules of music theory were observed and the texture was predominantly polyphonic. In the second practice, the text dominated the music, and rules might be broken for the purpose of better expressing the words. Here the texture was usually homophonic. Although the system of tonality was not fully established when Monteverdi wrote his rst madrigals in the new expressive style, he observed certain tonal principles. Monteverdi’s bass line was an organizing and stabilizing element; it supported the melody or melodies above and gave his music a sense of direction, of harmonic drive. He and other early Baroque composers thought of the triad as a true chord rather than as the result of combining melody lines. Recogniz- ing rudimentary relationships between triads, they produced music with a new sense of stability. This allowed composers to venture away from the tones of the key they were in because the strong sense of key held the music together. Not only dissonance, but also chromaticism —the use of tones from the chromatic scale, not included in the scale of the current key—came to be used more freely. The reliable movement of the bass voice and the systematic use of logical chord progressions supported the increasingly bold use of chromaticism and disso- nance in music. EARLY OPERA The Baroque did not invent musical drama. The ancient Greeks had combined music with drama; in the Middle Ages, music accompanied liturgical plays; and in the sixteenth century, short but spectacular music dramas called intermedii had entertained audiences between the acts of a play. Even madrigals sometimes con- stituted mini-music dramas, with different voices or combinations of voices an- swering each other in dialogue form. However, with the possible exception of the Greeks, musicians before the Baroque period had not produced a type of vocal music suitable for a full-length music drama. The several independent voices of a polyphonic madrigal made it dif cult to follow a complex text. Even the solo madrigal, a late sixteenth-century solo song with instrumental accompaniment, remained too dependent on musical consider- ations to enhance the expression of a lengthy text. First Practice Second Practice Polyphonic texture Homophonic texture Music dominates text Text dominates music O en used for church music O en used for secular songs TABLE COMPARISON OF FIRST AND SECOND PRACTICES
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On the other hand, the new type of vocal writing introduced by members of the Florentine Camerata eminently suited dramatic recitation. This development had unparalleled importance in the history of Western music, demonstrating that a soloist could express a text clearly and dramatically while singing beau- tiful music. The earliest operas (musical dramas sung throughout) consisted almost entirely of the new style. Less elaborate than some of the earlier interme- dii, the earliest operas, composed around 1600, set the same texts, librettos, to music over and over again. The well-known stories, based on Greek mythology, gripped audiences’ attention with the expressiveness of the new singing style and with the sheer beauty of the highly trained singing voice. Monteverdi, however, was the rst composer to realize that fully successful music drama requires a skillful blending of the literary, visual, and performance arts. Like his contemporaries Caravaggio and Shakespeare, Monteverdi was a pioneer in the expression of human emotion. His 1607 opera L’Orfeo, a great suc- cess in its day and today generally considered the rst great opera, formed a pow- erful bridge between the Renaissance and the Baroque and still profoundly moves audiences in opera houses around the world. More varied and more complex than earlier vocal music, Monteverdi’s operas are magni cent in their own right while pointing toward the elaborate operas of the mature Baroque. “Tu se 9 morta” from L’Orfeo (Listening Example 16) may be heard as a kind of speech-song, not yet clearly either recitative or aria . (Stirring scenes from L’Orfeo are available on YouTube.) Recitative Composers in the Baroque period recognized the need for two types of solo sing- ing: one to move the story along, and one to express emotional reaction to dramatic events. The rst, recitative (from the same root as recitation ), is closely related to spoken declamation. The term refers both to the style of singing, and to a piece, or a section of music, sung in that style. res-i-tah-teev’ (or reh-chih-tah-teev’) THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT WORDS AND MUSIC What do you consider the ideal relationship between words and music in vocal music? Should either dominate? Does the relationship vary between opera Broadway musicals rap rock and religious music? Do you pay more attention to words or music? “Tu se 9 morta” from L’Orfeo COMPOSER Claudio Monteverdi DATE GENRE Early Baroque opera PRELUDE TO LISTENING In the recitative “Tu se 9 morta” from L’Orfeo Monteverdi mixes extremely expressive text declamation with sophisticated word painting In this poignant soliloquy Orpheus Orfeo grieves over the death of his beloved wife Euridice vowing in his despair to follow her to the underworld and bring her back to life or to remain there with her forever The homophonic texture is the result of a composition for voice in which a written bass line indicates the chords to be filled in by accompanying instruments in this case a portable organ and bass lute The occasional pauses such as a er the first word e ff ectively indi cate Orfeo’s distraught emotional state Dissonances used for expressive e ff ect occur most o en at the end of lines Monteverdi used dramatic word painting on the words “stele” stars “abissi” abysses and “morte” death WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Tenor voice portable organ and bass lute homophonic tex ture singing in the rhythm of speaking expressive dissonance word painting LISTENING EXAMPLE
PART THREE THE BAROQUE ORFEO’S GRIEF Orpheus expresses his grief over Euridice’s death. Tu se 9 morta, se 9 morta Thou art perished, mia vita. art perished, beloved ed io respiro, and I yet linger, Tu se 9 da me partita, Thou art from me departed se 9 da me partita per art from me mai più, departed forever, mai più non tornare, yea never returning, ed io remango nò! And I remain Nò! here—no! No! ORFEO’S VOW Orpheus vows to journey to the underworld and use his powers of persuasion to rescue Euridice. Note the low pitches on “abissi” and “morte,” at the depths of the tenor range, in contrast with the extremely high pitch on “stele.” Che sei versi alcuna For if verses may cosa ponno, have any power, n’andrò sicu ro al più then shall I seek the profondi abissi, most profound abysses, e in tenerito il cor del and with my song rè del l’ombre, entreat the king of shadows meco trarotti a to let me bring thee riverder le stelle, to see again the heavens, o se ciò negherammi or if this cruel fate empio destino, still denies me, rimarò teco in I shall stay with thee compagnia di within the realm morte! of shadows! ORFEO’S FAREWELL Orpheus bids farewell to the world of the living. Addio terra, Farewell, earth, Addio cielo, Farewell, heavens, e sole, addio. and sunlight, farewell. Several characteristics of recitative render it particularly suitable for the rapid ex- change of dialogue or the ef cient and economical presentation of a long text. Melody The melody of a recitative re ects something of the natural in ection that would occur in a spoken presentation of the text. The vocal range of a recitative is usually rather narrow, as it is in speech, although extremely high or low pitches may be used for descriptive or dramatic purposes.
CHAPTER DRAMATIC MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE Rhythm The rhythm of recitative is free or exible, with the words normally set in syllabic style. The rhythm may be metered, but in performance the singer freely adapts the rhythm to that of the text. Form Recitative is exible in form, adaptable to the demands of the text. Texture Recitative is generally homophonic in texture, consisting of a vocal line supported by an instrumental accompaniment. 1. Dry recitative is accompanied by occasional chords played on a keyboard, or by a small group of instruments. 2. Accompanied recitative is accompanied by an orchestra. Aria An aria (in English works sometimes called an air ) is more closely concerned with music than with text. It often corresponds to a dramatic soliloquy, providing the opportunity for re ection on, and emotional reaction to, events that have occurred in the drama and/or have been related through recitative. In this sense, the aria was well adapted to the Baroque doctrine of the affections, con ned as it was to the expression of a particular mood or emotional state. The text of a Baroque aria is usually rather short, with words and phrases repeated for dramatic emphasis and for musical organization. Arias differ from recitatives in melody, rhythm, form, and accompaniment (Table 14.2). Melody Arias often have soaring melody lines, designed to move the emotions and display the beauty of the singing voice. Because the text is of secondary im- portance, there may be ample opportunity for vocal display. During the Baroque, singers were expected to add elaborate embellishments to the melody, especially during the repetition of a section of the piece. Rhythm An aria has metered rhythm and is performed with less distortion of the rhythm than is typical of recitative. Form An aria has a formal design. One frequently used form is the da capo aria, which has an ABA design. The rst section ( A ) and the second ( B ), usually con- trasting in mood, melodic material, and key, are presented; then the singer repeats section A , usually adding vocal embellishments. Accompaniment An aria is accompanied by the orchestra, which not only sup- ports the vocal line and enriches the sonority but often has a melodic function as well, introducing or imitating phrases of the vocal line and providing instrumental preludes and interludes. Recitative Aria Melody Close to spoken inflection Usually narrow range of pitch Designed to express emotion and display the singing voice Rhythm Free, flexible Metered Form Flexible, adapted to text Follows a formal design Texture Homophonic Homophonic Accompaniment Keyboard ( dry ) or orchestra ( accompanied ) Orchestra TABLE COMPARISON OF RECITATIVE AND ARIA
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HENRY PURCELL C Much as with the madrigal, the British imported Italian opera but then invented their own style of opera in the English lan- guage. One of the greatest English composers of all time, Henry Purcell (Figure 14.1), excelled in the creation of vocal dramatic works, including the brief but lovely opera Dido and Aeneas, written for performance by the limited resources at a girls’ boarding school. A boy chorister in the Chapel Royal until his voice broke ear- lier than normal, Purcell then assumed other musical chores at the court, soon becoming a ne organist, a knowledge- able keeper of instruments, and a music copyist. He wrote sacred choral music, numerous keyboard works, and ne in- strumental music, all revealing his mastery of canon and of ground bass: the art of composing a piece over a bass ostinato. The bass pattern, or ground, “obstinately” recurs throughout the piece, supporting the melody and harmonies above it. Purcell’s moving aria “When I am laid in earth,” from Dido and Aeneas, illustrates his gift for composing over a ground. Further, this aria and the recitative that precedes it (Listening Example 17) beautifully illustrate many of the principles we have outlined distinguishing these two dramatic vocal forms from each other. (This scene from Dido and Aeneas may be viewed on YouTube.) Pur’-cel FIGURE Henry Purcell “Thy hand Belinda” recitative and “When I am laid in earth” aria from Dido and Aeneas COMPOSER Henry Purcell DATE GENRE Baroque opera recitative and aria PRELUDE TO LISTENING A er the Trojan wars Prince Aeneas has been forced by storms to land his ships in Carthage where he and Queen Dido fall deeply in love When circumstances force Aeneas to leave Carthage Dido declares that she cannot live without him Her servant and friend Belinda is unable to comfort her and Dido dies whether from a broken heart or by her own hand is unclear Purcell composed this expressive recitative and aria which occur at the end of the opera directly preceding Dido’s death in the key of G minor a key that he o en used in his dramatic music to symbolize death The chromatically descend ing ground bass in the aria enhances the sense that Dido is losing breath and strength as she sings Throughout the aria Dido repeats significant words from each of her phrases to dramatic e ff ect WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Soprano string ensemble quadruple meter recitative and triple meter aria ground bass ostinato two part form word repetition LISTENING EXAMPLE
CHAPTER DRAMATIC MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE LATE BAROQUE OPERA The rst public opera house opened in Venice in 1637, and soon there were opera houses in other Italian cities and other countries as well. But by the early eighteenth century, the classical ideals of the Florentine Camerata had been overturned. No longer did opera purport to express a dramatic text simply and naturally. The drama now had become a mere framework around which composers and stage designers created marvelous musical and visual effects. Staging, costumes, and scenery grew ever-more elaborate. With the aid of complicated machinery, gods ew to earth, people ascended to heaven, and earthquakes, res, and tempests added to the entertainment. At an opera staged by Bernini in Rome, a “ re” on the stage appeared so real that the audience ed from the theater! It seems ironic that the classically inspired melodies of the Florentine Camerata composers led very soon to the extravagant, amboyant, romantic form of later Baroque opera. Bel Canto Arias reigned supreme in late Baroque Italian opera, their simple, repetitive, and familiar texts providing an effective vehicle for virtuosic vocal display. The singing RECITATIVE The notes closely follow the rhythm of the words as they would be spoken, obscuring the sense of meter. Accompaniment consists only of sparse chords. Notice the poignant dissonances on the first syllable of the word “bosom” and on the word “death.” Thy hand, Belinda, darkness shades me; On thy bosom let me rest. More I would, but death invades me. Death is now a welcome guest. GROUND The ground, or bass ostinato, introduces the aria. It descends chromatically, suggesting the descent from earth to grave. ARIA A SECTION As the ground begins again, Dido begins her aria, repeating the significant words “am laid,” “no trouble.” When I am laid in earth, may my wrongs create no trouble in thy breast. A SECTION REPEATED The first line of text is repeated. B SECTION The lovely melody, redolent of sighs and sobs, soars to an unforgettable peak as Dido pleads for remembrance, repeating the phrase, “Remember me.” Remember me, but ah! forget my fate. B SECTION REPEATED The text to the B section is repeated. GROUND The violins and violas play a heavily sighing figure imitatively as they accompany the final presentation of the ground.
PART THREE THE BAROQUE voice attained artistic levels never before conceived, and audiences ocked to the opera house to hear their favorite soloists sing their favorite arias. People chatted, ate, and drank during the recitatives, interested only in the beautiful melodies and vocal display of the arias. The term bel canto (Italian for “beautiful singing”) is applied to this type of opera, which emphasizes the beauty and virtuosity of the singing voice, even at the expense of dramatic integrity. For the rst time, clear distinctions were drawn between music that was instru- mentally conceived and music intended to be sung; moreover, how one sang (or played an instrument) was as important as what one performed. Heated disputes occurred between composers, who wanted their melodies sung as written, and singers, who took increasing liberties with the melody lines. Differences between those who believe that the text of an opera is most important (“opera is primarily a dramatic form”) and those who believe that the text may be sacri ced for musi- cal effect (“opera is primarily a musical form”) began with the earliest operas and persist today. Most admired of all singers were castrati, men who had been castrated before their voices changed from soprano or alto to adult male ranges and timbres. With adult lungs and chests, castrati developed powerful voices with extreme ranges of pitch. Some became international stars. A taste for women’s voices developed, however, during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, leading to the decline of the castrato and the rise of the prima donna (“ rst lady”), or virtuoso female singer. (The term originally referred to the singer of the principal female role in an opera.) Schools for destitute girls in Ven- ice and other cities provided advanced music instruction in singing and playing instruments, and noble families encouraged their daughters to become accom- plished musicians. Soon there was a demand at courts, at castles, and on vari- ous private occasions for performances by professional as well as amateur female musicians. Women were largely denied the professional opportunities available to men as directors of court or church music ensembles; but a few gifted women attained prestigious posts, composing and direct- ing as well as performing music to generous acclaim. GEORGE FRIDERIC HANDEL By the 1720s, audiences were beginning to tire of the highly styl- ized Baroque opera. The librettos held scant interest; little effort was put into the acting; and rst French, then German and Eng- lish audiences lost interest in performances sung in Italian. This change in public sensibility had profound effects on the career of George Frideric Handel (Figure 14.2). Handel, who was born in Germany, spent considerable time in Italy, and eventually became a British citizen, personi es the con icted experience of the Baroque composer. A religious man and one of the greatest organists and harpsichordists of his day, Handel nevertheless composed more music for the theater than for the church. Even his religious music had a decidedly dramatic air, for drama was in his soul. Having spent three years in Rome, Handel proceeded to compose a large number of highly successful Italian operas. FIGURE George Frideric Handel
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CHAPTER DRAMATIC MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE In 1710, Handel was appointed court musician to the elector of Hanover, Ger- many; but soon his independent personality (characteristic of romantics of any period) led him to request a leave of absence to visit England—a visit from which he never returned. Handel liked England, where he wrote and produced many Italian operas for the appreciative English audience. Slowly, however, Handel realized that changing public taste meant the end of the reign of Italian opera in England. Impending bankruptcy forced the formerly wealthy composer to abandon Italian opera—to his good fortune and ours—and compose oratorios instead. ORATORIO The oratorio, like the opera, developed early in the Baroque period, and the two forms share many characteristics. Both are vocal dramatic works originally con- ceived for popular entertainment. However, an oratorio is based on a religious subject, often with a story derived from the Old Testament of the Bible. Some early oratorios were costumed and staged in the manner of operas, but by Handel’s time oratorios were conceived for concert performance, as they are today. There are proportionately fewer recitatives in Handel’s oratorios than in his op- eras, and the oratorio arias are less amboyant and generally require less virtuos- ity. The chorus —a composition for a group of singers (also called a chorus or choir) with several voices on each part—is used extensively. Like an aria, a chorus has formal design, metered rhythm, and an orchestral accompaniment. It may be ei- ther homophonic or polyphonic in texture, and contrasting homophonic and poly- phonic passages often add musical and dramatic force within a particular chorus. Messiah Handel’s Messiah, the world’s best-known and best-loved oratorio, in some ways is quite uncharacteristic of the oratorio form. It is a series of contempla- tions on the life of Christ, rather than a story with an integrated plot; its subject is drawn from the New Testament rather than the Old; and its soloists comment on dramatic events in which they do not participate. Handel composed Messiah in about three weeks, and though he included some music borrowed from his own earlier compositions, he always considered this long and powerful work to have been divinely inspired. Handel’s other oratorios, also enthusiastically received by his English audiences, continue to thrill listeners around the world today. Based on familiar Bible sto- ries, they are performed in English and have stirring choruses that especially ap- pealed, as choral music does today, to the English. King George II, for example, is said to have been so enthralled by Messiah ’s glorious “Hallelujah” chorus (Listening Example 18) that he rose impulsively from his seat. Whether the story is true or not, it has become customary for the audience to rise when this chorus is performed. JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH J. S. Bach (Figure 14.3) was born the same year as Handel but died nine years before the great composer of Messiah. By that time, many composers already had abandoned the heavy drama and fervent religious expression of the Baroque for the lighter, more graceful, and more secular Rococo and Classical styles, and the year of Bach’s death is generally accepted as the end of the Baroque. or-a-tor’-ee-o THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT HANDEL’S MESSIAH Do you think Handel’s Messiah will continue to be as popular in the twenty first century as it was in the twentieth? Explain your answer
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THE BAROQUE “Hallelujah” Chorus from Messiah COMPOSER George Frideric Handel DATE GENRE Oratorio PRELUDE TO LISTENING Newspaper accounts of the first performance of Messiah by Handel called the oratorio “the finest Composition of Musick that was ever heard ” The e ff ectiveness of this chorus the best known of the many powerful choruses Handel included at dramatic moments in the oratorio stems from the contrasting homophonic polyphonic and monophonic sections and the frequent reiterations of “Hallelujah!” The rhythmic and dynamic structure of the piece constitutes a series of ever building waves of sound The overall e ff ect is one of constantly increasing musical energy that climaxes in the final proclamation of “Hallelujah!” WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Chorus soprano alto tenor bass strings trumpets harpsi chord and bass accompaniment group unison monophony polyphony homophony contrasting dynamics LISTENING EXAMPLE INTRODUCTION Strings and continuo emphatically state the joyful “Hallelujah” motive, accompanied by a strong, rhythmic bass line. HALLELUJAH The full chorus sings the first two phrases accompanied by strings and continuo. The repetition of the second phrase at a higher pitch than the first is an example of melodic sequence. FOR THE LORD Monophony and homophony alternate throughout this section: The chorus and instruments perform “for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth” in unison monophony; in the resounding homophonic response, trumpets and drums reinforce the chorus. IMITATIVE POLYPHONY Voices and instruments toss the melodic motive back and forth in joyful imitative po- lyphony. Sopranos are answered by tenors and basses, who in turn are answered by tenors and altos. THE KINGDOM The following chordal passage begins with a sudden hush, but ends in a stunning forte . The kingdom of this world is become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ. AND HE SHALL REIGN Imitative polyphony heightens the excite- ment of the next section, as basses, tenors, altos, and sopranos in order sing the dra- matic, angular (disjunct) phrase. And He shall reign forever and ever.
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CHAPTER DRAMATIC MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE KING OF KINGS Sopranos and altos in unison sing “King of Kings, and Lord of Lords,” answered by tenors and basses. Excitement mounts as the pitches soar ever higher. A homophonic statement closes this section. AND HE SHALL REIGN All sections of the choir participate in this section, in which the three textures alternate. HALLELUJAH! A stunning pause, as dramatic as the pre- ceding sounds, prepares the final trium- phant chordal outburst: “Hallelujah!” To become more familiar with Handel’s Messiah listen to the tenor recitative and aria “Comfort ye my people” and “Ev’ry valley shall be exalted ” The accompanied recitative is so melodic and so expressive as to suggest an aria or “air ” to use Handel’s term yet the straightforward unembellished delivery and the short con cluding dry recitative serve as preparation for the joyful air that follows Notice the clear formal design ABA 9 B 9 the repetition of text word painting on words such as “crooked ” “mountain ” and “low ” and vocal virtuosity all characteristic of arias of this period Also listen to the aria “Piangero la sorte mia” (I bemoan my cruel fate) from Handel’s opera Giulio Cesare . Consider the di ff erences in style between Handel’s famous oratorio and this operatic aria. (These examples are readily available online.) FIGURE Morning hymn Bach at home with his family
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Although they were contemporaries, Handel and Bach differed in many personal and professional respects. Both composers wrote religious and secular music, but Bach remained essentially a man of the church and Handel a man of the theater. Handel, a great impresario, won and lost fortunes during his turbulent career, while the practical and methodical Bach dutifully composed and performed for the church. Handel never married; Bach was a dedicated family man who married twice and fathered a large number of children. Handel demanded professional independence; Bach generally served the will of his employers. And whereas Handel produced operas as a form of lavish entertainment, Bach wrote much of his music for purely practical purposes—to teach, or to ful ll his obligations as a church musician. In the style-conscious manner of his period, Bach wrote many kinds of music, each suitable for a particular purpose. He produced quantities of choral music for the churches he served, as well as two large oratorios called Passions, based on the events leading to the cruci xion of Christ. Although a Protestant, Bach also com- posed a long and very beautiful Mass, hoping thereby to attract the favorable at- tention of an in uential Catholic elector. Though Bach did not receive the position he sought for several years, his B-minor Mass contains some of the most glorious music ever written. CANTATA Among Bach’s many compositions are nearly two hundred dramatic vocal works, some religious, some secular, called cantatas. (The term cantata originally meant a piece to be sung, as opposed to an instrumental sonata .) The Baroque religious can- tata was speci cally a vocal dramatic work, based on a religious story, with recita- tives, arias, and choruses sung in the vernacular and accompanied by an organ and usually a small orchestra. Intended for church rather than concert performance, cantatas are considerably shorter than oratorios and often are somewhat restrained. Cantatas intended for performance in the Lutheran church service, such as Bach’s “Wachet auf” (Listening Example 19), were based on chorale tunes, generally famil- iar to the congregation. The chorale text suggested a story, and the tune provided a musical subject for the work. Recurring in several sections, the chorale also provided a unifying element throughout the composition. Often the congregation joined the choir in singing the familiar chorale tune in the last movement of a cantata. Cantata No “Wachet auf” Sleepers Awake fi rst movement COMPOSER Johann Sebastian Bach DATE GENRE Lutheran cantata PRELUDE TO LISTENING Bach wrote this cantata for a service in which the Bible reading was the allegorical story of the wedding of Christ and His church at tended by five wise maidens while five foolish maidens stayed away The famous chorale “Wachet auf ” which had been written more than a hundred years earlier and was well known to the German Lutheran congregation appears in the first fourth and seventh movements The chorale text suggested a story and the tune provided a musical subject for the cantata Bach’s genius is apparent in the manner in which he treated his given material for example he incorporated the LISTENING EXAMPLE
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DRAMATIC MUSIC OF THE BAROQUE original chorale melody sung by the sopranos throughout this movement while the other voices embellish it in complex polyphonic texture In addition Bach doubled the soprano’s melody with the horn the watchman’s instrument as a constant reminder of the theme of the chorale text WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Baroque orchestra strings woodwinds horn four part chorus soprano alto tenor bass triple meter dotted uneven rhythms chorale melody polyphony INTRODUCTION The orchestra introduces the opening theme in a “dotted” (uneven) rhythm, possibly in- tended here to represent a stately wedding processional. At the end of the introduction, the higher instruments play a series of ascend- ing scale patterns while the lower instruments accompany with a slower descending pattern. WACHET AUF Soprano voices sing each phrase of the cho- rale melody in long notes. The other voices (alto, tenor, bass) sing the same text but with di ff erent melodies and rhythms, creating a dense polyphony. A brief instrumental section that restates a portion of the opening theme follows each phrase of the chorale. “Wachet auf,” ru “Awake,” the voice uns die Stimme of the watchmen Der Wächter sehr calls us from high hoch auf der on the tower, Zinne, “Wach auf, du “Awake, you town Stadt Jerusalem!” Jerusalem!” INTRODUCTION REPEATED The introduction is repeated exactly. MITTENACHT The second half of the movement proceeds similarly to the first half, with each line of cho- rale text followed by a portion of the opening instrumental theme. “Mitternacht heisst “Midnight is this diese Stunde!” [very] hour!” Sie rufen uns mit they call to us with hellem Munde: bright voices: “Wo seid ihr klugen “Where are you, Jungfrauen? wise virgins? Wohlauf, de Take cheer, the Bräutgam kommt, Bridegroom comes, Steht auf, die Arise, take up your Lampen nehmt!” lamps!” ALLELUJA The soprano, alto, tenor, and bass sections enter imitatively, each singing a complex mel- ody not based on the chorale melody. Alleluja!
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PART THREE THE BAROQUE MACHT EUCH BEREIT The sopranos sing the final two lines of the chorale as earlier, with the other sections com- menting in dense polyphony. “Macht euch “Prepare yourselves bereit zur der for the wedding, Hochzeit, Ihr müsset ihm you must go forth entgegengehn!” to meet Him!” INTRODUCTION REPEATED The introduction, repeated exactly, brings the piece to a logical and satisfying close. If you enjoyed this music, you might like to hear the rest of the cantata, which has six more movements, or sections. You will hear dry and accompanied recitatives, duets for soprano and bass, the chorale tune sung in unison by tenors accompanied by strings, and finally the chorale gloriously sung by the chorus with full orchestral accompaniment. (This piece is available online.) Monteverdi recognized the values of both the Renaissance polyphonic and the new homophonic styles of composition, referring to them as the rst and second practices, respectively. Composers of the Baroque period combined these tech- niques to introduce three new dramatic vocal forms: opera, oratorio, and cantata. Each of these new forms included speech-related recitatives, songlike arias, and elaborate choruses, and each was accompanied by an orchestra. By the late seventeenth century, Italian opera, dominated by arias in the bel canto style, had achieved wide popularity. However, English audiences eventually tired of foreign operas, preferring operas in their own language. Having lost the fortune he had made as a composer of Italian operas, Handel turned to the com- position of oratorios instead. His Messiah remains the best-known and best-loved oratorio in the world today. Bach lived at the same time as Handel, but the two composers differed in temper- ament and experience. Handel served the theater. Bach was a church musician and a teacher, primarily dedicated to the service of his employers. His vocal music includes a large number of cantatas, two long Passions, and the famous Mass in B Minor. first practice, stile antico second practice, stile moderno chromaticism opera libretto recitative aria da capo aria bel canto castrato (plural, castrati) oratorio cantata Composers Claudio Monteverdi Henry Purcell George Frideric Handel Johann Sebastian Bach
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CHAPTER Baroque Instrumental Music BAROQUE COMPOSERS OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC bene ted from advances made in instrumental styles and techniques during the Renaissance. Further, they enjoyed an advantage compared with composers of vocal music, whose inno- vations must be limited by the necessity to set a text clearly, and appropriately, to music. Therefore, many musical instruments and techniques of playing instruments were extraordinarily advanced during the Baroque, when for the rst time instru- mental music became equal, in quantity and quality, to music for the singing voice. New instrumental forms evolved as well, augmenting the store of Renaissance forms already in place. MUSIC FOR KEYBOARDS Keyboard music increased in variety and quantity as the lute declined in popular- ity and the harpsichord and organ became more important. Many kinds of pieces that had made up the lute repertoire now were played on the harpsichord instead. The harpsichord also accompanied performances of many kinds, lling in the tonal harmonies above the increasingly signi cant bass line. Several characteristics of the pipe organ made it particularly well suited to the Baroque taste for dramatic contrasts. For example, organists could achieve abrupt changes in dynamic level—as, from loud immediately to soft—simply by moving the hands from one keyboard, or manual, to another. This effect, called terraced dynamics, formed a distinctive feature of Baroque music. Further, by changing stops organists had a wide range of sonorities available, attractive to the discrimi- nating Baroque ear. Thus it is not surprising that this period introduced several important forms of music intended for keyboard performance (Figure 15.1). Prelude A prelude is a relatively brief keyboard piece that may be either an independent composition or the introduction to another piece or set of pieces. Preludes often sound improvisatory, suggesting that the performer is testing the instrument or
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PART THREE THE BAROQUE warming up for the more structured and virtuosic piece or pieces to follow. The prelude and fugue, for example, formed a common pair during the late Baroque. The chorale prelude is a prelude based on the melody of a Lutheran chorale. Like much of the music of the Baroque, chorale preludes served a practical purpose, allowing a church congregation to hear and become familiar with a chorale before singing it themselves at some point in the service. Fugue The fugue is a polyphonic composition with two to six (though usually three or four) melodic lines or voices. (Here “voices” refers to either vocal or instrumental lines of music.) The rst voice presents the subject, or principal melody, which each of the other voices then imitates in turn. The entrances alternate between the tonic and dominant keys, with those in the dominant called the answer (Figure 15.2). Whereas the imitation in a round or canon is literal, with each voice performing the same melody in turn, the imitation in a fugue is merely similar because the answer begins on a different tone from the subject. The exposition, or opening section, usually is succeeded by passages called episodes, with material that may or may not be drawn from the subject. Episodic passages, FIGURE Jan Vermeer The Music Lesson c The keyboard instrument in this painting called a virginal uses the same plucking action as the harpsichord
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offering melodic and harmonic contrast to the exposition, may alternate with fur- ther presentations of the exposition, or with the fugue subject in related keys. Nor- mally a nal, often dramatic, presentation of the exposition in the tonic key brings the fugue to a close. Soon composers were writing fugues for instruments other than the lute or key- board. Fugues also proved very effective in choral music. Some keyboard fugues, such as Bach’s “Little” Fugue in G minor (Listening Example 20), constitute inde- pendent compositions; some fugues, such as Benjamin Britten’s fugue in The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra (Listening Example 5), are the second of a contrasting pair of pieces; and some fugues form one movement of a multimovement work. One of Bach’s greatest legacies, a set of forty-eight preludes and fugues called The Well-Tempered Clavier, includes two sets of paired preludes and fugues in each of Subject (tonic) (Other thematic material) Answer (dominant) Answer (dominant) Subject (tonic) FIGURE Exposition of a four voice fugue Fugue in G minor “Little Fugue” COMPOSER Johann Sebastian Bach DATE c GENRE Organ fugue PRELUDE TO LISTENING The prowess of Bach in composing fugues is well apparent in his many compositions in the genre The composer demonstrated his abili ties in when visiting King Frederick the Great of Prussia at his palace in Potsdam Upon being presented with an appropriate subject by the king Bach not only improvised a fugue to everyone’s delight but also later fashioned an extended work called The Musical O ff ering from the same musical idea The “Little Fugue” has many features typical of the genre opening with an exposition in which the theme or subject appears in each of the ranges voices that will be used in the composition This is a four voiced fugue with voices appearing in the soprano alto tenor and bass ranges A er the exposition subsequent en trances of the subject appear in contrasting keys separated from each other by episodes sections in which the subject is not heard Like most fugues this one closes with further reference to the subject in the tonic key WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Organ imitative polyphony quadruple meter four voice fugue sequences LISTENING EXAMPLE
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PART THREE THE BAROQUE the major and minor keys. (“Well-tempered” refers to a method of tuning keyboard instruments, and “clavier” is a general term for keyboard instruments.) Even dur- ing the century after his death, when Bach’s music was largely unknown or out of favor, this work remained in print and highly valued, as it is today. Toccata The toccata, a popular Renaissance form for lute or keyboard exploiting the perform- er’s technical brilliance, or virtuosity, became of major importance for harpsichord and organ during the Baroque. Toccatas, like preludes, often have an improvisatory character, though all the notes are written out. The rhythm of a toccata is quite ex- ible, and there is elaborate embellishment of the melody lines, which—in keeping EXPOSITION SUBJECT VOICE I The fugue subject appears first in the soprano range in G minor with a broken triad (played one note at a time instead of simultaneously) in the order . ANSWER VOICE II Voice II enters in the alto range, with the answer in the dominant key, D minor. Voice I continues with the countersubject, new thematic material that fits hand-in-glove against the subject. SUBJECT VOICE III Voice III enters in the tenor in the key of G minor, as Voice II continues with the countersubject. ANSWER VOICE IV Voice IV enters, in the bass range, with the an- swer in D minor, as Voice III continues with the countersubject. EPISODE Episodes consist of freely composed material. Note the frequent use of melodic sequences. SUBJECT VOICE III The subject begins in Voice III before moving to Voice I. The key modulates sequentially in the episode that follows. SUBJECT VOICE IV The subject appears in a major key. Each sub- ject entrance is followed by an episode. SUBJECT The subject appears in Voice IV in a major key. SUBJECT The subject in Voice I is now in a minor key. A longer episode follows. SUBJECT The final appearance of the subject is in Voice IV, in the tonic key. Bach brings the piece to a satisfying—and surprising?—conclusion on a major chord. Having studied this famous organ fugue you may enjoy listening to Bach’s Prelude and Fugue in C major from the Well Tempered Clavier Performances of many of the Well Tempered Clavier preludes and fugues including several by the famous and controversial pianist Glenn Gould may be heard on YouTube
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CHAPTER BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC with the improvisatory quality of the piece—tend to be more rhapsodic than tune- ful. Just as the speechlike recitative is often succeeded by an aria in vocal music, the exible and improvisatory-sounding toccata is often followed by a tightly struc- tured fugue; such contrasts eminently suited the Baroque taste for contrast. The showy toccatas often featured a favorite melodic device of the Baroque: repeti- tion of a melodic phrase at different levels of pitch, or melodic sequence. This tech- nique provides a simple means of moving rapidly through many keys, a source of fascination to Baroque composers—for whom, after all, tonality was a relatively new concept with which they delighted in experimenting, always returning, however, to the security of the tonic. As you listen to music of the Baroque—for keyboard, singing voice, or orchestral instruments—you will frequently hear long passages of melodic sequence. (Bach’s dramatic and popular Toccata in D minor for organ, frequently heard in horror movies and around Halloween, amply illustrates this technique.) Suite Appreciation for contrasts between sections of a large composition led Baroque composers to expand the short sets of dance pieces for lute or keyboard popu- lar during the Renaissance to multimovement works called suites. A suite might be introduced by a short prelude or overture, after which each section, or piece, had the characteristic style, tempo, and rhythmic patterns of a particular dance, thereby conforming to the doctrine of the affections. Of course the highly stylized dances were conceived as concert rather than dance music. BASSO CONTINUO During the Baroque period, composers often wrote only the melody of a piece and a strong, supporting, continuous bass line, called the basso continuo in Italian (or thoroughbass in English). Numbers ( gures) placed under the bass line indicated the harmonies to be lled in, a “3,” for example, indicating the interval of a third above the bass. This practice, known as figured bass, constituted a kind of music shorthand that might be compared with systems of jazz notation, in which chord symbols, written in a variety of ways, substitute for traditional methods of notat- ing music. With the exception of solo lute and keyboard pieces, all Baroque solo and ensemble music was accompanied by at least one sustaining bass instrument, such as a cello, bassoon, or string bass playing the all-important basso continuo, and a lute or keyboard instrument, which played the bass line and the melody while also lling in the unwritten middle voices as indicated by the gured bass. This system of notation and improvisation exempli ed the vertical, or chordal, orientation of Baroque musicians’ thought processes in contrast to the linear polyphony of earlier periods. So important is this concept to the music of the Baroque, the period is sometimes referred to as the Age of the Figured Bass. CHAMBER MUSIC The Baroque brought several wind and string instruments to a peak of perfection. The ute, greatly improved in quality, gained in popularity as well. The period also produced the world’s nest violins, including those made by the famous Stradivari and Guarneri families. The new violins differed in several respects from the viols of the Renaissance. For example, new methods of construction and new bowing tech- niques produced a louder sound, better suited to the romantic taste of the Baroque. These and other musical instruments are heard to advantage in Baroque chamber music, pieces performed by a small instrumental ensemble with one instrument per line of music. The sonata is one form of chamber music.
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PART THREE THE BAROQUE Sonata The Baroque sonata, a multimovement form for one or more solo instruments ac- companied by a basso continuo, became an important form in the seventeenth century. Unfortunately, the fact that the continuo, as the term is often abbreviated, included more than one instrument led to some confusion in terminology. The trio sonata, for example, so called because it had three written lines of music—two melody lines and a bass—required a minimum of four performers, one for each of the two melody lines and at least two for the continuo. You may listen to several trio sonatas by Arcangelo Corelli, one of the most famous Baroque composers of music for strings, on YouTube and other online sites.) Baroque sonatas were of two types: 1. Sonata da camera, similar to dance-related keyboard suites, intended for concert (secular) performance. 2. Sonata da chiesa, intended for performance in church. (“Chiesa” means church in Italian.) Even the sonata da chiesa included dance movements that simply were not labeled as such. ORCHESTRAL MUSIC The Baroque generally replaced the Renaissance consort of instruments of similar timbre with the mixed ensemble we call an orchestra. Early orchestras were basically string ensembles with a few wind instruments, and sometimes timpani, adding color, or variety, to the sound. Baroque com- posers often required great virtuosity of the players in these early orchestras. Concerto The concertato principle, described in Chapter 12, appealed strongly to Baroque musicians, who particularly enjoyed the effect of contrasting sonorities and dynamic levels. In fact, the orchestral form called a concerto —a multimovement compo- sition for orchestra and one or more solo instruments—was based on the concerted efforts of two opposing elements. The solo concerto contrasts the orchestra with one solo instru- ment. Like the sonata, the concerto afforded Baroque compos- ers the variety they enjoyed in tempo, mood, timbre, and key. The most proli c composer of Baroque concertos was Antonio Vivaldi. ANTONIO VIVALDI Though ordained a priest, Antonio Vivaldi (Figure 15.3) spent most of his life as a professional musician. He taught at an orphanage-conservatory for girls in Venice and traveled to other European cities as a guest conductor of opera and orchestra performances. He wrote vast numbers of choral and orchestral compositions, as well as many operas, responding to the demand in his day for quantities of new music. Among the most famous and best-loved Baroque compositions is Vivaldi’s set of four violin concertos, The Four Seasons. Listening Example 21 features the rst movement of the “Spring” Concerto from this work. FIGURE Antonio Vivaldi THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT INSTRUMENTAL VS VOCAL MUSIC Instrumental and vocal music were of approximately equal interest in the Baroque Do you think in strumental or vocal music appeals more to today’s audiences? Explain your answer
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BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC “Spring” Concerto from The Four Seasons fi rst movement COMPOSER Antonio Vivaldi DATE GENRE Solo concerto PRELUDE TO LISTENING Scored for a string orchestra and three solo violins each of the concertos in the set by Vivaldi titled The Four Seasons includes dramatic vir tuoso passages for solo violin Vivaldi prefaced each concerto with a sonnet the words of which appear in the score in passages where the music is intended to express a particular programmatic idea For the “Spring” concerto he wrote this introduction Spring has come and the birds greet it with happy songs and at the same time the streams run so ly murmuring to the breathing of the gentle breezes Then the sky being cloaked in black thunder and lightning come and have their say a er the storm has quieted the little birds turn again to their harmonious song These attractive concertos abound with colorful references to the sounds and e ff ects of nature revealing Vivaldi’s gi for achieving varied orchestral sonorities The dynamic variety throughout is limited to piano and forte without crescendo or decrescendo the terraced dynamics typical of the Baroque The solo sections are naturally abruptly so er than those played by the full orchestra due to the smaller number of instruments playing WHAT YOU WILL HEAR String orchestra violins violas and double bass basso continuo harpsichord and cello solo violin quadruple meter allegro tempo ter raced dynamics program music MAIN THEME “SPRING HAS COME” The bold main theme in E major consists of two phrases, each of which is played forte and echoed piano. “SONGS OF THE BIRDS” The solo violin along with two additional violins plays trills in a high range meant to imitate the sound of bird songs. The other instruments are silent during this section. MAIN THEME The second phrase of the main theme is played forte in E major. “MURMURING STREAMS AND GENTLE BREEZES” Gently flowing lines in the orchestra so ly imitate the sound of streams and breezes. MAIN THEME The second phrase of the main theme returns, now at a lower pitch in the key of B major. “STORM” Thunder, depicted by a tremolo (a shaking e ff ect) in the orchestra, is heard intermittently throughout this section. The violins play a fast ascending scale to depict lightning. The solo violin plays a di ff erent fast figure, perhaps rep- resenting lightning as well. MAIN THEME The second phrase of the main theme is played at a higher pitch in the key of C-sharp minor. LISTENING EXAMPLE
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“RETURN OF THE BIRD SONGS” The three violins again join in a musical representation of various bird songs. SECOND THEME The orchestra enters with material reminiscent of the main theme. The key modulates. SOLO VIOLIN The solo violin has one last passage before the closing of the piece. MAIN THEME The second phrase of the main theme, in the home key of E major, occurs both forte and with a piano echo, bringing the movement to a calm close. Concerto Grosso The Baroque also produced an abundance of the kind of concerto called a concerto grosso, a composition for string orchestra plus a small group of solo instruments (instead of one solo instrument, as in the solo concerto). The solo ensemble of a Baroque concerto grosso often consisted of two violins and basso continuo, but many other combinations also were used late in the period. As in a solo concerto, passages alternate between those for full orchestra, those for a lighter sound— in the concerto grosso a small group of soloists instead of one solo instrument— and those for orchestra and soloist or soloists together. A concerto grosso, like a solo concerto, generally has three movements, in the order fast-slow-fast. Vivaldi, Handel, and many other Baroque composers produced numerous con- certos of this kind for a wide variety of solo combinations and a string orchestra, often augmented by several wind instruments. Bach organized the rst move- ment of his Brandenburg Concerto no. 2 (Listening Example 22) according to the ritornello principle, in which a thematic section, the ritornello, most often played by the orchestra, begins a concerto movement and then alternates, in full or in part, with the solo sections. The ritornello (Italian for “refrain”) often re- turns in its original form at the end of the movement. Comparing this movement to that of the Vivaldi concerto (Listening Example 21) shows clearly that Bach was in uenced by the Italian composer’s use of the ritornello principle (labeled “main theme”). THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE CONCERTO GROSSO The concerto grosso replaced in popularity by the solo concerto throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries has had particular appeal for a number of recent and contemporary compos ers See Listening Example the first movement of Ellen Taa ff e Zwilich’s Concerto Grosso Why do you suppose this form lost and then regained favor? Brandenburg Concerto No in F major COMPOSER Johann Sebastian Bach DATE c GENRE Concerto grosso PRELUDE TO LISTENING The six Brandenburg Concertos by Bach today perhaps the best known of this popular Baroque genre were discovered in a forgotten archive in the town of Brandenburg more than a hundred years a er their com position The second concerto features four solo instruments violin flute oboe and trumpet but the high pitched Baroque trumpet stands out over the other instruments when they play together Each of the instruments has solo sections in the first movement which opens with a fanfare like ritornello theme Perhaps LISTENING EXAMPLE
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BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC because of the trumpet’s dominance in the outer movements Bach omits it from the middle movement which is based on imitation on a single musical phrase and a complementary sighing motive The relentlessly consistent pulse of the accompaniment further heightens the poignancy and the emotional intensity of the main melody In the final fugal movement Bach again places the trumpet in a central role and it announces the fugue subject The solo instruments and the orchestra toss the subject and a secondary motive in the rhythm of short short long back and forth throughout the episodes that intervene between subject statements MOVEMENT I WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Baroque string orchestra with basso continuo cello and harpsichord solo group Baroque trumpet oboe flute and violin terraced dynamics strong rhythmic drive allegro tempo quadruple meter use of motives derived from the main theme polyphony homophony RITORNELLO THEME SOLO SECTION The brilliant ritornello theme is played in unison by the flute, oboe, solo violin, and violins of the orchestra, accompanied by the solo trum- pet, other strings, and continuo in the tonic key of F major. A short section for the violin follows. RITORNELLO SOLO SECTION A short version of the ritornello theme in the tonic, F major, is followed by a solo section for the other three solo instruments. RITORNELLO SOLO SECTION The theme in the dominant key of C major is followed by a short solo section for the trumpet. RITORNELLO The ritornello is heard briefly in violins in the key of D minor, accompanied by a trill in the solo trumpet. SOLO The longest of the solo sections, featuring all members of the solo group, begins with legato sequences between trumpet and oboe. RITORNELLO SOLO SECTIONS The ritornello is restated in the keys of C minor and G minor with intervening solo sections. Motives from the main theme may be heard throughout the second of the solo sections. RITORNELLO The ritornello is boldly stated in the original tonic key of F major. SOLO All of the solo instruments participate in the final solo section. RITORNELLO The ritornello theme is restated in the tonic key of F major. Notice the slightest relaxation in tempo, or ritardando , at the end. MOVEMENT II WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Baroque string orchestra with basso continuo cello and harpsichord solo group oboe flute and violin pulsing rhythmic accompani ment andante tempo triple meter imitative polyphony sighing motive
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PART THREE THE BAROQUE THEME The first of three variations on the melodic phrase that forms the theme to the movement is introduced by the violin, which is imitated by the oboe and then the flute. Each instrument continues with variations on the melody. VARIATION ON THE THEME The first variation on the theme is played by the oboe, followed by the violin and the flute. SECOND VARIATION The violin plays the second variation on the theme, followed by the flute and then the oboe. SIGHING MOTIVES The second half of the piece is dominated by a sighing motive and fragments of the theme. RESTATEMENT OF THEME All three instruments restate the original theme. FUGUE EXPOSITION The trumpet announces the fugue subject in the tonic key of F. The exposition proceeds with the oboe, violin, and flute answering, restating, and answering in turn in the dominant, tonic, and dominant keys. SUBJECT The subject is played by the trumpet in the dominant key of C, followed by an episode dominated by melodic sequences. SUBJECT The flute and violin play the subject in the domi- nant key of C, followed by a short episode. SUBJECT The oboe enters with the subject in the key of D minor. EPISODE This is the most extended episode of the fugue, incorporating a number of melodic sequences. EPISODE WITH PARTIAL SUBJECT Partial statements of the fugue subject occur in the trumpet, flute, and bass orchestral instruments. SUBJECT The trumpet plays the final restatement of the subject in the tonic key. MOVEMENT III WHAT YOU WILL HEAR Baroque string orchestra with basso continuo cello and harpsichord solo group Baroque trumpet oboe flute and violin allegro tempo duple meter fugue You might also listen online to another of Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos no Here the solo instruments are violin flute and harpsichord and the harpsichord is given a prominent and virtuosic role unusual in orchestral music of the Baroque The three movements occur in the fast slow fast pattern heard in Listening Example the last movement consisting of a rollicking dance a gigue guaranteed to li one’s spirits
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CHAPTER BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC During the Baroque, instrumental music became of equal importance with music for the voice. New forms for keyboard and other instruments, organized according to rules of the recently adopted tonal system of harmony, revealed appreciation for dramatic contrasts of timbres, tempos, and dynamic levels. Most instrumental and vocal compositions were accompanied by the basso continuo, played by at least one sustaining instrument and a keyboard or lute player who realized the harmo- nies above a gured bass. The Baroque produced many beautiful sonatas for a variety of solo instru- ments accompanied by a continuo. The concerto, pitting orchestra against one or more solo instruments, seemed especially suited to express the Baroque apprecia- tion for contrasts of sound. terraced dynamics prelude chorale prelude fugue toccata suite basso continuo figured bass chamber music sonata orchestra solo concerto concerto grosso ritornello Violin makers Antonio Stradivari Giuseppe Guarneri Composers J. S. Bach Antonio Vivaldi
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