Anthro Exam

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Des Moines Area Community College *

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105

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Anthropology

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Apr 3, 2024

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1. (from chapter 4). What themes and interests unify the subdisciplines of anthropology? In your answer, refer to historical reasons for the unity of anthropology. Anthropology is a broad field with various subdisciplines, each with its own focus. Despite their diversity, several overarching themes unify the subdisciplines: Cultural Relativism: The theory that cultures should be studied within their unique contexts without imposing culturally biased judgments is promoted by anthropology. Anthropologists are encouraged by this viewpoint to accept various cultural behaviors, regardless of how they differ from their own cultural norms. Anthropologists study, understand, and respect diverse cultural values. (Kottak, pg.64) Cultural relativism has been very useful in the study of certain tribal nations that have different customs than ourselves. Applied Anthropology: A large number of anthropologists are dedicated to solving real- world problems and conducting applied research. Applying anthropological knowledge and methods to modern social problems like healthcare inequalities, environmental preservation, economic growth, and cultural preservation is known as applied anthropology. Anthropologists conduct ethnographic research to understand the social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors affecting a community's well-being, such the volcanoes affecting iceland. As David Price (2000) has noted, activities encompassed under the label applied anthropology are extremely diverse, ranging from research for activist NGOs to workplace studies commissioned by and for management. (Kottak, pg.74) Ethnographic Fieldwork: Immersion in a community or culture for the purpose of observing, taking part in, and documenting daily life, beliefs, and practices. By offering a standard approach for examining human societies, the practice of ethnographic fieldwork played

a pivotal role in uniting anthropology. This focus on participant and personal observation developed to become a defining characteristic of anthropological research, encouraging a common method between subdisciplines. For decades, anthropologists have used ethnographic procedures to understand organizations and business settings in North America and abroad (Briody and Trotter 2008; Cefkin 2009; Ferraro page 75and Briody 2017; A. Jordan 2013; B. Jordan 2013; McCabe 2017) Overall, these themes and interests serve to unify the subdisciplines of anthropology and highlight the discipline's commitment to understanding the complexity of human existence in its many different forms. 2. (from chapter 2). What is the relationship between culture and the individual? Provides examples. The relationship between culture and the individual is complex, as culture both shapes and is shaped by individual behavior, beliefs, and identities. Socialization: Culture plays a crucial role in shaping individuals through the process of socialization. People pick up cultural norms, beliefs, and behaviors from an early age through their contacts with friends, family, schools, and the media. For example, children in different cultures are socialized to understand concepts of right and wrong, appropriate gender roles, and forms of respect based on the cultural norms of their societies. Humans have developed considerably the primate tendency to be social animals, living and interacting regularly with other members of their species. (Kottak, pg.74) Behavioral Patterns: Cultural norms and expectations influence individuals' behavior in various contexts. These norms dictate acceptable conduct in social, professional, and personal settings. For instance, greetings rituals vary across cultures, with some cultures emphasizing

physical touch like hugs, while others prefer verbal greetings or gestures like bowing When one behavior pattern changes, others also change. During the 1950s, most American women expected to have careers as wives, mothers, and domestic managers. As more and more women have entered the workforce, attitudes toward work and family have changed. (Kottak, pg.21) Identity Formation: People get their sense of identity from their culture, which affects how they view other people and themselves. Language, symbols, customs, and cultural practices play roles in the formation of social and personal identities. For example, a person who comes from an individualistic culture would place more value on independence and personal accomplishments, whereas someone raised in a collectivist culture might identify with family or community. People become agents in the enculturation of their children, just as their parents were for them. Although a culture changes constantly, certain fundamental beliefs, values, worldviews, and child-rearing practices endure. One example of enduring shared enculturation is the American emphasis on self-reliance and independent achievement. (Kottak, pg.21) Overall, the relationship between culture and the individual is dynamic and complementary, with individuals both influenced by and actively shaping the cultural contexts in which they live. 3. (from chapter 3). What theories have guided anthropology over the years? Name the theory, the theorist and provide an explanation of the theory. Over the years, anthropology has been guided by a number of theories, all of which provide a unique viewpoint on human behavior, society, and cultures. These are a few well- known theories, along with theorists and explanations for each.

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Cultural Evolutionism is a theory created by Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan. According to the theory of cultural evolution, human cultures evolve from simple to sophisticated over time. In accordance with this theory, civilizations develop straight lines with each stage signifying a step forward. Morgan's studies on kinship relationships gave rise to the concept of social evolution, while Tylor proposed the idea of unilinear evolution. However, because of ethnocentric presumptions and simplistic understanding of cultural development, cultural evolutionism lost popularity. “White claimed to be returning to the same concept of cultural evolution used by Tylor and Morgan, now better informed by a century of archaeological discoveries and a much larger ethnographic record.” (Kottak, pg.51) Functionalism is a theory by Bronisław Malinowski, Émile Durkheim.The interdependence of social institutions and their roles in preserving social stability and order are highlighted by functionalism. This theory holds that cultural practices and beliefs have specific roles in a society that contribute to its overall equilibrium and cohesion. While Durkheim examined the roles of social structures in policing behavior and upholding solidarity, Malinowski's functionalist approach concentrated on the role of cultural institutions in meeting individual and societal needs. “A form of functionalism persists today in the widely accepted view that there are social and cultural systems and that their elements, or constituent parts, are functionally related (are functions of each other) so that they covary: When one part changes, others also change.” (Kottak, pg.51) Structuralism is a theory by Claude Lévi-Strauss. The goal of structuralism is to identify essential patterns that support individuals' cultures and societies. Using structuralist analysis, Levi-Strauss examined kinship systems and myths, finding underlying mental structures and

binary oppositions that he believed were shared by all cultures. Structuralism emphasizes how language, cultural systems, and symbolism influence how people think and behave. “Lévi- Strauss’s structuralism evolved over time, from his early interest in the structures of kinship and marriage systems to his later interest in the structure of the human mind. In this latter sense, Lévi-Straussian structuralism (1967) aims not at explaining relations, themes, and connections among aspects of culture but at discovering them.” (Kottak, pg.54) Cultural Materialism is a theory by Marvin Harris.Understanding cultural practices and beliefs in terms of their material and environmental contexts is the goal of cultural materialism. According to Harris, cultural behaviors can be understood as adaptive reactions to material factors like resources, technology, and food production, as well as ecological limitations. Cultural materialism places a strong emphasis on how ecological and economic variables shape social change and cultural evolution. “In proposing cultural materialism as a theoretical paradigm, Marvin Harris drew on models of determinism associated with White and Steward. Harris (1979/2001a) thought that any society had three parts: infrastructure, structure, and superstructure.” (Kottak, pg.52) These theories have impacted anthropology by offering frameworks that cover a variety of viewpoints, from structuralist to evolutionary and functionalist methods, for comprehending human communities and cultures. Although every theory has advantages and disadvantages, taken as a whole, they add to the complexity and diversity of anthropological research. 4). (from chapter 4). How can anthropology be applied to medicine, education and business? And comment on how the academic and the applied are used in each case?

Applications of anthropological knowledge and techniques can be found in many different fields, including business, education, and health. Here is how anthropology is used in each of these domains, along with some observations about their theoretical and practical uses. Medical anthropology is a field that examines the relationship between culture, society, and health. Academics in this domain investigate the ways in which cultural values, customs, and societal frameworks impact health-related behaviors, medical systems, and illness. Applied medical anthropology utilizes cultural understanding to enhance public health initiatives, patient outcomes, and healthcare delivery. In addition to conducting community- based research on health disparities and advocating for the inclusion of cultural perspectives in medical practice, anthropologists may collaborate with healthcare providers and policymakers to develop healthcare programs that are culturally competent.”Medical anthropologists, for example, have worked as cultural interpreters in public health programs, helping such programs fit into local culture.”(Kottak, pg.62) When anthropologists study education, they look at how cultural context affects educational systems, learning processes, and knowledge transfer within communities. They look into things like cultural variations in learning styles, educational disparities, and the effects of globalization on education.”A broad college education, and even a major in anthropology, can be an excellent foundation for success in many fields (see Golub 2017).”(Kottak, pg.77) Using anthropological theories and techniques to address educational issues and develop cultural sensitivity in educational settings is applied to anthropology in education. To create culturally appropriate education systems, create teacher preparation programs that take into

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account the needs of a variety of student populations, as well as carry out ethnographic research on school cultures and student experiences, anthropologists can collaborate with educators. Business anthropologists comprehend consumer behavior, market dynamics, and corporate culture. They investigate the ways in which economic activity, organizational structures, and business practices are influenced by cultural values, norms, and identities. Using anthropological insights to guide organizational development, marketing initiatives, and business strategy is known as applied anthropology in business. Anthropologists can advise on corporate social responsibility programs meant to build strong ties with local communities, train multinational firms in cross-cultural communication, and conduct consumer research to comprehend cultural preferences and market trends.”Anthropology majors go on to medical, law, and business schools and find success in many professions that often have little explicit connection to anthropology.”(Kottak, pg.77) The academic and applicable elements of anthropology work in each of these fields to produce knowledge, guide practice, and tackle practical issues. Applied anthropology converts the theoretical principles and information required to comprehend complicated social issues into workable strategies and solutions. Academic research supplies empirical evidence and theoretical framework. Anthropology promotes better decision-making, culturally sensitive methods, and constructive social change in a variety of contexts by connecting theory and practice. Kottak, C. (n.d.). appreciating diversity. In Cultural anthropology (pp. 17–77). essay, McGraw hill. Retrieved 2024,. (Kottak, 2024)

Anthro Exam

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