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Traditions &
Encounters
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:03 AM Page 1
I
THE EARLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES,
3500 TO 500 B
.
C
.
E
.
quickly came to dominate political and eco-
nomic afairs in their respective regions. In-
ded, since the apearance of cities, the earth
and its creatures have falen progresively
under the inuence of complex societies or-
g
a
n
i
z
e
d
a
r
o
u
n
d
ci
t
i
e
s
.
T
he term complex society
refers to a form of
l
a
r
g
e
-
s
ca
l
e
s
o
ci
a
l
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
t
h
a
t
e
m
e
r
g
e
d
i
n
several parts of the ancient world. Earl
y com-
plex societies al depended on robust agricul-
tural economies in which cultivators produced
more fod than they neded for their subsis-
tence. T
hat agricultural surplus enabled man
y
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
t
o
c
o
n
gr
e
g
a
t
e
i
n
u
r
b
a
n
s
e
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
,
where they devoted their time and energy to
specialized tasks other than fod production.
Political authorities, go
vernment ofcials, mili-
tary experts, priests, artisans, craftsmen, and
merchants al lived of that surplus agricultural
production. T
hrough their organization of po-
litical, economic, social, and cultural afairs,
complex societies had the capacity to shape
the lives of large populations over extensive
t
e
r
i
t
o
r
i
e
s
.
D
u
r
i
n
g
t
h
e
c
e
n
t
u
r
i
e
s
f
r
o
m
3
50
t
o
50
B
.
C
.
E
.
,
complex societies arose independentl
y in sev-
eral widely scatered regions of the world, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, northern India, China,
Mesoamerica, and the central Andean region of South
America. Most complex societies sprang from smal agri-
cu
l
t
u
r
a
l
c
o
m
u
n
i
t
i
e
s
s
i
t
u
a
t
e
d
e
i
t
h
e
r
i
n
r
i
v
e
r
v
a
l
e
y
s
o
r
n
e
a
r
s
o
u
r
c
e
so
fw
a
t
e
rt
h
a
tcu
l
t
i
v
a
t
o
r
sc
o
u
l
dta
pt
oi
r
i
g
a
t
et
h
e
i
r
F
or thousands of years after the emer-
gence of the human species, human beings lived in tiny comunities with no
permanent home. They formed compact,
mobile societies, each consisting of a few
dozen people, and they traveled regularly
in pursuit of game and edible plants. From
the vantage point of the fast-moving pres-
ent, that long rst stage of human experi-
ence on the earth might sem slow paced
and almost changeles. Y
et inteligence set
human beings apart from the other mem-
bers of the animal kingdom and enabled
human groups to invent tols and tech-
niquesthatenhancedtheirabilitytoe
xploit
the natural environment. Human beings
gradualy emerged as the most dynamic
species of the animal kingdom, and e
v
en in
remote prehistoric times they altered the
f
aceofthearthtosuitheirneds.
Y
et humans earl
y exploitation of the earths
resources was only a prologue to the ex-
traordinary developments that folowed the
introduction of agriculture. About twelve
thousand years ago human groups began to
experiment with agriculture, and it son be-
came clear that cultivation provided a larger and more
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
f
o
d
s
u
p
l
y
t
h
a
n
d
i
d
f
o
r
a
gi
n
g
.
G
r
o
u
p
s
t
h
a
t
t
u
r
n
e
d
to agriculture experienced rapid population growth, and
they setled in permanent comunities. T
he worlds rst
cities, which apeared about six thousand years ago,
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 2
cr
o
p
s
.A
le
s
ta
b
l
i
s
h
e
dp
o
l
i
t
i
ca
la
u
t
h
o
r
i
t
i
e
s
,b
u
i
l
t
states with formal go
vernmental institutions,
c
o
l
e
ct
e
d
s
u
r
p
l
u
s
a
gr
i
cu
l
t
u
r
a
l
p
r
o
d
u
ct
i
o
n
i
n
t
h
e
form of taxes or tribute, and distributed it to
t
h
o
s
e
w
h
o
w
o
r
k
e
d
a
ta
s
k
s
o
t
h
e
r
t
h
a
n
a
gr
i
cu
l
-
t
u
r
e
.C
o
m
p
l
e
xs
o
ci
e
t
i
e
st
r
a
d
e
de
n
t
h
u
s
i
a
s
t
i
ca
l
y
with peoples who had aces to scarce re-
sources, and, in an efort to ensure stability
andeconomicproductivityineighboringre-
gions, they often sought to extend their au-
t
h
o
r
i
t
y
t
o
s
u
r
o
u
n
d
i
n
g
t
e
r
i
t
o
r
i
e
s
.
Complex societies generated much more
w
e
a
l
t
h
t
h
a
n
d
i
d
h
u
n
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
g
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
gr
o
u
p
s
orsmalagriculturalcomunities.Becauseof
their high levels of organization, they also
were able to preserve wealth and pas it along to their heirs. Some individuals and families acumulated great personal wealth,
whichenhancedtheirsocialstatus.W
henbe-
queathed to heirs and held within particular
families,thisacumulatedwealthbecamethe
foundation for social distinctions. T
he earl
y
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
i
f
e
r
e
n
t
k
i
n
d
s
o
f
social distinctions, but al recognized several
clasesofpeople,includingrulingelites,com-
mon people, and slaves. Some societies also
recognized distinct clases of aristocrats,
priests, merchants, artisans, fre peasants, and semi-fre
p
e
a
s
a
n
t
s
.
A
lc
o
m
p
l
e
xs
o
ci
e
t
i
e
sr
e
q
u
i
r
e
dcu
l
t
i
v
a
t
o
r
sa
n
di
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
-
als of lower clases to suport the more privileged mem-
b
e
r
s
o
f
s
o
ci
e
t
y
b
y
p
a
y
i
n
g
ta
x
e
s
o
r
t
r
i
b
u
t
e
(
o
f
t
e
n
i
n
t
h
e
f
o
r
m
of surplus agricultural production) and also by pro
viding
labor and military service. Cultivators often worked not
o
n
l
y
t
h
e
i
r
l
a
n
d
s
b
u
t
a
l
s
o
t
h
o
s
e
b
e
l
o
n
gi
n
g
t
o
t
h
e
p
r
i
v
i
l
e
g
e
d
clases. Individuals from the lower clases made up the
bulk of their societies armies and contributed the labor
f
o
rl
a
r
g
ec
o
n
s
t
r
u
ct
i
o
np
r
o
j
e
ct
s
u
c
ha
sci
t
yw
a
l
s
,i
r
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
and water control systems, roads, temples, palaces, p
yra-
m
i
d
s
,
a
n
d
r
o
y
a
l
t
o
m
b
s
.
T
he earl
y complex societies also created sophisticated
cultural traditions. Most of them either invented or bor-
rowed a system of writing that made it posi-
ble to record information and store it for later
use. They rst used writing to kep political,
administrative, and busines records, but they
son expanded on those utilitarian aplica-
tions and used writing to construct traditions
o
f
l
i
t
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
l
e
a
r
n
i
n
g
,
a
n
d
r
e
ct
i
o
n
.
Cultural traditions tok diferent forms in d
i
f
e
r
e
n
tc
o
m
p
l
e
xs
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
.S
o
m
es
o
ci
e
t
i
e
sd
e
-
voted resources to organized religions that
s
o
u
g
ht
om
e
d
i
a
t
eb
e
t
w
e
nh
u
m
a
nc
o
m
u
n
i
-
t
i
e
s
a
n
d
t
h
e
g
o
d
s
,
w
h
e
r
e
a
s
o
t
h
e
r
s
l
e
f
t
r
e
l
i
gi
o
u
s
o
b
s
e
r
v
a
n
c
e
sl
a
r
g
e
l
yi
nt
h
eh
a
n
d
so
fi
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
f
a
m
i
l
ygr
o
u
p
s
.A
lo
ft
h
e
mp
a
i
dcl
o
s
ea
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
t
o
t
h
e
h
e
a
v
e
n
s
,
h
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
s
i
n
c
e
t
h
e
y
n
e
d
e
d
t
o
gear their agricultural labors to the changing
s
e
a
s
o
n
s
.
A
l
t
h
e
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
e
d
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
o
f
f
o
r
m
a
l
e
d
u
ca
t
i
o
n
t
h
a
t
i
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r
o
d
u
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i
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e
ct
u
a
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i
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o
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i
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a
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r
i
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
a
s
t
r
o
n
o
m
i
ca
l
observation demed necesary for their soci-
e
t
i
e
s
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
.
I
n
m
a
n
y
ca
s
e
s
r
e
ct
i
v
e
i
n
d
i
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i
d
u
-
a
l
s
a
l
s
o
p
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o
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w
o
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s
t
h
a
t
e
x
p
l
o
r
e
d
t
h
e
n
a
t
u
r
e
of humanity and the relationships among h
u
-
m
a
n
b
e
i
n
g
s
,
t
h
e
w
o
r
l
d
,
a
n
d
t
h
e
g
o
d
s
.
S
o
m
e
of
t
h
o
s
e
w
o
r
k
s
i
n
s
p
i
r
e
d
r
e
l
i
g
i
o
u
s
a
n
d
p
h
i
l
o
s
o
p
h
i
c
a
l
t
r
a
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
f
o
r
t
w
o
m
i
l
e
n
i
a
o
r
m
o
r
e
.
Complexsocietywasnotheonl
yformofsocialorga-
nization that earl
y human groups constructed, but it was
an unusual
y important and inuential type of society
.
Complexsocietiesproducedmuchmorewealthandhar-
nesedhumanresourcesonamuchlargerscalethandid
b
a
n
d
s
o
f
h
u
n
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
g
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
p
e
o
p
l
e
s
,
s
m
a
l
a
gr
i
cu
l
t
u
r
a
l
comunities, or nomadic groups that herded domesti-
ca
t
e
d
a
n
i
m
a
l
s
.
A
s
a
r
e
s
u
l
t
,
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
d
e
p
l
o
y
e
d
t
h
e
i
r
p
o
w
e
r
,p
u
r
s
u
e
dt
h
e
i
ri
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
s
,a
n
dp
r
o
m
o
t
e
dt
h
e
i
rv
a
l
u
e
s
o
ver much larger regions than did smaler societies. In-
ded, most of the worlds peoples have led their lives
u
n
d
e
r
t
h
e
i
n
u
e
n
c
e
o
f
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
.
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1
Before History
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 4
T
hr
oughout the e
v
ening
of 30 No
vember 1
9
7
4, a tape player in an Ethiopian desert blared
the Beatles song L
ucy in the Sky with Diamonds at top volume. T
he site was an archaeo-
logical camp at Hadar, a remote spot about 320 kilometers (20 miles) northeast of Adis
A
b
a
b
a
.
T
h
e
m
u
s
i
c
h
e
l
p
e
d
f
u
e
l
a
s
p
i
r
i
t
e
d
c
e
l
e
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
:
e
a
r
l
i
e
r
i
n
t
h
e
d
a
y
,
a
r
c
h
a
e
o
l
o
gi
s
t
s
h
a
d
d
i
s
-
covered the skeleton of a woman who died 3.2 milion years ago. Scholars refer to this
womans skeleton as AL 28-1
, but the woman herself has become by far the worlds best-
k
n
o
w
n
p
r
e
h
i
s
t
o
r
i
c
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
u
n
d
e
r
t
h
e
n
a
m
e
L
u
cy
.
At the time of her death, from unknown causes, L
ucy was age twenty-ve to thirty
. She
stod just o
ver 1 meter (about 3.5 fet) tal and probabl
y weighed about 25 kilograms (5
pounds). After she died, sand and mud co
vered L
ucys bod
y, hardened gradual
y into rock,
a
n
d
e
n
t
o
m
b
e
d
h
e
r
e
m
a
i
n
s
.
B
y
1
9
7
4
,
h
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
r
a
i
n
w
a
t
e
r
s
h
a
d
e
r
o
d
e
d
t
h
e
r
o
c
k
a
n
d
e
x
p
o
s
e
d
L
ucys fosilized skeleton. T
he archaeological team working at Hadar eventual
y found 40
percent of L
ucys bones, which together form one of the most complete and best-preserved
skeletons of an
y earl
y human ancestor
. L
ater searches at Hadar turned up bones belonging
t
o
p
e
r
h
a
p
s
a
s
m
a
n
y
a
s
i
x
t
y
-
v
e
a
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
,
a
l
t
h
o
u
g
h
n
o
t
h
e
r
c
o
l
e
ct
i
o
n
o
f
bo
n
e
s
f
r
o
m
H
a
d
a
r
i
v
a
l
s
L
u
cy
s
k
e
l
e
t
o
n
f
o
r
c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
n
e
s
.
A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
o
f
L
u
cy
s
k
e
l
e
t
o
n
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
bo
n
e
s
f
o
u
n
d
a
t
H
a
d
a
r
d
e
m
o
n
s
t
r
a
t
e
s
t
h
a
t
h
e
a
r
l
i
e
s
t
ancestors of modern human beings walked upright on two fet. Erect walking is crucial for
h
u
m
a
nb
e
i
n
g
sb
e
ca
u
s
ei
tf
r
e
st
h
e
i
ra
r
m
sa
n
dh
a
n
d
sf
o
ro
t
h
e
rta
s
k
s
.L
u
cya
n
dh
e
rc
o
n
t
e
m
p
o
-
r
a
r
i
e
s
d
i
d
n
o
t
p
o
s
e
s
l
a
r
g
e
o
r
w
e
l
-
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
b
r
a
i
n
s
L
u
cy
s
s
k
u
l
w
a
s
a
bo
u
t
t
h
e
s
i
z
e
o
f
a
s
m
a
l
grapefruitbut unlike the neighboring apes, which used their forelimbs for locomotion, L
ucy
a
n
dh
e
rc
o
m
p
a
n
i
o
n
sc
o
u
l
dca
r
yo
b
j
e
ct
sw
i
t
ht
h
e
i
ra
r
m
sa
n
dm
a
n
i
p
u
l
a
t
et
o
l
sw
i
t
ht
h
e
i
rd
e
x
-
terous hands. T
hose abilities enabled L
ucy and her companions to survive beter than man
y
other species. As the brains of our human ancestors grew larger and more sophisticateda
proces that ocured o
ver a period of several milion yearshuman beings learned to take
even beter advantage of their arms and hands and established ourishing comunities
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
o
u
t
h
e
w
o
r
l
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4
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b
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so
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,r
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,a
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.A
bo
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tf
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ym
i
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n
years ago, short, hairy, monkeylike animals began to populate tropical regions of the world.
H
u
m
a
n
l
i
k
ec
o
u
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i
n
st
ot
h
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.
O P P O S I T E
:
A quartet of horses depicted about thirty thousand years ago in a painting from the Chauvet cave in southern France.
5
The Evolution of H
o
m
o
s
a
p
i
e
n
s
T
h
e
H
o
m
i
n
i
d
s
H
o
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o
s
a
p
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e
n
s
Paleolithic Society
E
c
o
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o
m
y
a
n
d
S
o
ci
e
t
y
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f
H
u
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a
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G
a
t
h
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P
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e
s
P
a
l
e
o
l
i
t
h
i
c
C
u
l
t
u
r
e
The Neolithic Era and the Transition to Agriculture
T
h
e
O
r
i
gi
n
s
o
f
A
gr
i
cu
l
t
u
r
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r
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e
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 5
6
P A R T
I
|
T
h
e
E
a
r
l
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C
o
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p
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S
o
c
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e
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a
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h
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r
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t
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o
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eap
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o
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this world, and o
ver time they demonstrated remarkable ingenuity in devising ways to take
a
d
v
a
n
ta
g
e
o
f
t
h
e
e
a
rt
h
s
r
e
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o
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s
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I
n
d
e
d
,
i
t
h
a
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e
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cl
e
a
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e
n
t
y
e
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r
s
t
h
a
t
t
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e
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u
m
a
n
animal has exploited the natural environment so thoroughl
y that the earth has undergone i
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
.
A
d
i
s
cu
s
i
o
n
o
f
s
u
c
h
e
a
r
l
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t
i
m
e
s
m
i
g
h
t
s
e
m
p
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r
i
p
h
e
r
a
l
t
o
a
bo
k
t
h
a
t
d
e
a
l
s
w
i
t
h
t
h
e
h
i
s
-
tory of human societies, their origins, development, and interactions. In conventional termi-
nology, prehistory
refers to the period before writing, and history
refers to the era after the
invention of writing enabled human comunities to record and store information. It is cer-
ta
i
n
l
y
t
r
u
e
t
h
a
t
h
e
a
v
a
i
l
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b
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a
b
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l
i
t
y
o
f
s
c
h
o
l
a
r
s
t
o
understand past ages, but recent research by archaeologists and evolutionary biologists has
brightly iluminated the physical and social development of early human beings. It is now
clear that long before the invention of writing, human beings made a place for their species
in the natural world and laid the social, economic, and cultural foundations on which their
s
u
c
e
s
o
r
s
b
u
i
l
t
i
n
cr
e
a
s
i
n
g
l
y
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
o
ci
e
t
i
e
s
.
The Evolution of H
o
m
o
s
a
p
i
e
n
s
D
u
r
i
n
g
t
h
e
p
a
s
t
c
e
n
t
u
ry
o
r
s
o
,
a
rc
h
a
e
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
s
,
e
v
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
a
ry
b
i
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
s
,
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
s
c
h
o
l
-
a
r
sh
a
v
ev
a
s
t
l
yi
n
c
re
a
s
e
dt
h
eu
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
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n
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u
m
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r
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i
n
sa
n
dt
h
el
i
v
e
so
u
rd
i
s
t
a
n
t
ancestors led. Their work has done much to clarify the relationship betwen human
beings and other animal species. On one hand, researchers have shown that human
beings share some remarkable similarities with the large apes. This point is true not
only of external features, such as physical form, but also of the basic elements of ge-
n
e
t
i
cm
a
k
e
u
pa
n
db
o
d
yc
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e
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ry
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N
A
,c
h
ro
m
o
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a
lp
a
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e
rn
s
,l
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e
-
s
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s
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a
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n
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n
gp
ro
-
t
e
i
n
s
,
a
n
d
b
l
o
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t
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p
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s
.
I
n
t
h
e
c
a
s
e
o
f
s
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m
e
o
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t
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s
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l
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s
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s
c
i
e
n
t
i
s
t
s
h
a
v
e
b
e
n
a
b
l
e
to observe a diference of only 1.6 percent betwen the DNA of human beings and
c
h
i
m
p
a
n
z
e
s
.B
i
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
st
h
e
re
f
o
rep
l
a
c
eh
u
m
a
nb
e
i
n
g
si
nt
h
eo
rd
e
ro
fp
r
i
m
a
t
e
s
,a
l
o
n
g
w
i
t
h
m
o
n
k
e
y
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,
c
h
i
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p
a
n
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e
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,
g
o
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a
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,
a
n
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r
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o
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s
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e
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l
a
r
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e
a
p
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s
.
Ontheotherhand,humanbeingsclearlystandoutasthemostdistinctiveofthe
primatespecies.Smaldiferencesingeneticmakeupandbodychemistryhaveledto
enormousdiferencesinlevelsofinteligenceandabilitytoexercisecontroloverthe
n
a
t
u
r
a
lw
o
r
l
d
.H
u
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a
nb
e
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r
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yh
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fi
n
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e
,
w
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a
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o
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i
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t
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a
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.
W
h
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a
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d
geneticaly to their natural environment, human beings altered the natural environ-
mentosuitheirnedsandesiresaprocesthatbeganinremoteprehistoryand
continuesinthepresentday
.Overthelongterm,to,inteligencendowedhumans
w
i
t
h
i
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e
n
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e
p
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i
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years.TheOlduvaiGor
geinT
anzaniandHadarinEthiopiahaveyieldedespecialy
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 6
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C H A P T E R
1
|
B
e
f
o
re
H
i
s
t
o
ry
7
rich remains of individuals like the f
a
m
o
u
s
L
u
c
y
.
T
h
e
s
e
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
p
r
o
b
-
ably represented several diferent
species belonging to the genus Aus-
tralopithecus
(the southern ape),
w
h
i
c
h
o
u
r
i
s
h
e
d
i
n
e
a
s
t
A
f
r
i
c
a
d
u
r
i
n
g
t
h
e
l
o
n
g
p
e
r
i
o
d
f
ro
m
a
b
o
u
t
f
o
u
r
m
i
l
-
l
i
o
n
t
o
o
n
e
m
i
l
i
o
n
y
e
a
r
s
a
g
o
.
In spite of its name, Australo-
pithecus
was not an ape but rather a hominida creature belonging to
t
h
e
f
a
m
i
l
y
H
o
m
i
n
i
d
a
e
,
w
h
i
c
h
i
n
c
l
u
d
e
s
human and humanlike species. Evo-
lutionary biologists recognize Aus-
tralopithecus
as a genus standing
alongside Homo
(thegenusinwhich
biologists place modern human be-
i
n
g
s
)
i
n
t
h
e
f
a
m
i
l
y
o
f
h
o
m
i
n
i
d
s
.
C
o
m
-
pared to our species, Homo sapiens,
Lucy and other australopithecines
wouldsemshort,hairy
,andlimited
i
n
i
n
t
e
l
i
g
e
n
c
e
.
T
h
e
y
s
t
o
d
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
n
g
o
v
e
r
1
m
e
t
e
r
(
3
f
e
t
)
t
a
l
,
w
e
i
g
h
e
d
2
5
t
o
5
k
i
l
o
g
r
a
m
s
(
5
t
o
1
2
1
p
o
u
n
d
s
)
,
and had a brain size of about 50
cubicentimeters.(Thebrainsizeof
modern humans averages about
1
,
4
0
c
.
)
Compared with other ape and
animal species, however
, australo-
pithecines were sophisticated creatures. They walked upright on two legs, which en-
a
b
l
e
d
t
h
e
m
t
o
u
s
e
t
h
e
i
r
a
rm
s
i
n
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
l
y
f
o
r
o
t
h
e
r
t
a
s
k
s
.
T
h
e
y
h
a
d
w
e
l
-
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
h
a
n
d
sw
i
t
ho
p
o
s
a
b
l
et
h
u
m
b
s
,w
h
i
c
he
n
a
b
l
e
dt
h
e
mt
og
r
a
s
pt
o
l
sa
n
dp
e
rf
o
rmi
n
t
r
i
-
cate operations. They almost certainly had some ability to comunicate verbaly
, al-
though analysis of their skuls sugests that the portion of the brain responsible for
s
p
e
c
h
w
a
s
n
o
t
v
e
ry
l
a
r
g
e
o
r
w
e
l
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
.
T
h
e
i
n
t
e
l
i
g
e
n
c
e
o
f
a
u
s
t
r
a
l
o
p
i
t
h
e
c
i
n
e
s
w
a
s
u
fc
i
e
n
t
o
a
l
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8
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hunts in wel-cordinated ways that presumed prior comunication. Many sites ATLANTIC
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 8
C H A P T E R
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tities of animal remains found at those sitesparticularly bones of lar
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 9
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1
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P A R T
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landmas. Almost two milion years ago, Homo er
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dred thousand years ago they had established themselves throughout the temperate
zones of the eastern hemisphere, where archaeologists have unearthed many speci-
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r
s
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a
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.
Betwen sixty thousand and ften thousand years ago, Homo sapiens
extended
t
h
er
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g
eo
fh
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e
dt
he
a
rt
h
st
e
m
-
perature during that period, resulting in the concentration of water in masive gla-
ciers, the lowering of the worlds sea levels, and the exposure of land bridges that
l
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k
e
d
A
s
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a
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.
S
m
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l
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s
of individuals crosed those bridges and established comunities in the islands of
Indonesia and New Guinea, and some of them went farther to cros the temporarily
n
aro
w
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.
Homo sapiens
arived in Australia about sixty thousand years ago, perhaps even
e
a
r
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r
.
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o
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h
a
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,
other groups tok advantage of land bridges linking Siberia with Alaska and estab-
l
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ro
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the western hemisphere. About ften thousand years ago, comunities of Homo
s
a
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a
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st
ore
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nize problems and posibilities in their environment and then to take action that f
a
v
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re
dt
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rv
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ts
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re
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creasingly sophisticated tols that rect Homo sapiens
progresive control over the
environment. In adition to the chopers, scrapers, axes, and other tols that earlier
s
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t
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 10
C H A P T E R
1
|
B
e
f
o
re
H
i
s
t
o
ry
1
made dwelings for themselves in caves and in hutlike shelters fabricated from wod,
bones, and animal skins. In cold regions Homo sapiens
warmed themselves with re
and cloaked themselves in the skins of animals. Mounds of ashes discovered at their
campsites show that in especialy cold regions, they kept res burning continuously
d
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o
use spoken languages to comunicate complex ideas and cordinate their eforts in
the comon interest. Homo sapiens
used superior inteligence, sophisticated tols,
andlanguagetoexploithenaturalworldmorefcientlythananyotherspeciesthe
e
a
rt
h
h
a
d
s
e
n
.
Sources from the Past
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(
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-
species caled Homo sapiens sapiens,
which represents a
division of the species known as Homo sapiens.
Every
speciesisuniqueandistinct:thatispartofthedeni-
tion of a species. But what is particularly interesting
a
b
o
u
t
o
u
r
s
p
e
c
i
e
s
? . . .
Our forelimbs, being fred from helping us to get
about,posesaveryhighdegreofmanipulativeskil.
Part of this skil lies in the anatomical structure of the
hands,buthecrucialelementis,ofcourse,thepower
of the brain. No mater how suitable the limbs are for
d
e
t
a
i
l
e
d
m
a
n
i
p
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e
re
d
t
h
ro
u
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h
n
e
rv
e
b
re
s
.
The most obvious product of our hands and brains is
technology
.Notheranimalmanipulatestheworldin
t
h
e
e
x
t
e
n
s
i
v
e
a
n
d
a
r
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ry
w
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h
a
t
h
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m
a
n
s
d
o
.
T
h
e
t
e
r
-
mitesarecapableofconstructingintricatelystructured
m
o
u
n
d
s
w
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i
c
h
c
re
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e
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t
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s
i
d
e
.
B
u
t
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t
e
rm
i
t
e
s
c
a
n
o
t
c
h
o
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e
t
o
b
u
i
l
d
a cathedral instead. Humans are unique because they
h
a
v
e
t
h
e
c
a
p
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c
i
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y
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o
c
h
o
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e
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h
a
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y
d
o
.
C
o
m
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c
a
t
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a
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l
t
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r
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a
d
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f
a
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.
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o
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c
i
a
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i
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s
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t
s
u
c
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t
e
rm
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t
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o
n
t
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t
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s
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l
e
a
r
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n
t
i
a
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f
o
r
t
h
e
i
r
c
o
m
p
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x
l
a
b
o
u
r
s
:
their language is not verbal but is based upon an ex-
c
h
a
n
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o
f
c
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m
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a
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d
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e
rt
a
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n
s
o
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o
f
s
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a
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i
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g
w
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t
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t
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e
b
o
d
y
.
I
n
m
a
n
y
a
n
i
m
a
l
g
r
o
u
p
s
,
s
u
c
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a
s
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d
s
a
n
d
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a
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l
s
,
c
o
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n
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c
a
t
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b
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s
o
u
n
d
i
s
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p
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rt
a
n
t
,
a
n
d
t
h
e
p
o
s
t
u
re
a
n
d
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
t
h
e
b
o
d
y
can
also
transmit
mesages.
The
tilting
of
the
head,
the
s
t
a
r
i
n
g
o
r
a
v
e
rt
e
d
e
y
e
s
,
t
h
e
a
r
c
h
e
d
b
a
c
k
,
t
h
e
b
r
i
s
t
l
e
d
h
a
i
r
o
r
f
e
a
t
h
e
r
s
:
a
l
a
re
p
a
rt
o
f
a
n
e
x
t
e
n
s
i
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e
re
p
e
rt
o
i
re
o
f
a
n
i
-
m
a
l
s
i
g
n
a
l
s
.
I
n
a
n
i
m
a
l
s
t
h
a
t
l
i
v
e
i
n
g
r
o
u
p
s
,
t
h
e
n
e
d
t
o
b
e
a
b
l
e
t
o
c
o
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
e
ef
e
c
t
i
v
e
l
y
i
s
p
a
r
a
m
o
u
n
t
.
For humans, body language is stil very important
but the voice has taken over as the main chanel of information-ow
. Unlike any other animal, we have a
s
p
o
k
e
n
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
w
h
i
c
h
i
s
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r
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t
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r
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d
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h
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e
v
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c
a
b
-
u
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ry
a
n
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a
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o
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e
x
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r
a
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ru
c
t
u
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e
.
S
p
e
c
h
i
s
a
n
u
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p
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r
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e
d
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o
rm
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a
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a
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s
,
H
o
m
o
s
a
p
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n
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s
a
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s
.
A
l
t
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e
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,
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e
m
o
r
e
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h
a
n
j
u
s
t
inteligent.Oursenseofjustice,ournedforaesthetic
pleasure, our imaginative ights, and our penetrating
s
e
l
f
-
a
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
,
a
l
c
o
m
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a
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p
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w
h
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b
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o
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.
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ship in the larger animal kingdom help explain human
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 11
1
2
P A R T
I
|
T
h
e
E
a
r
l
y
C
o
m
p
l
e
x
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o
c
i
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s
,
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5
0
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o
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B
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E
.
Inded, inteligent, tol-bearing humans competed so sucesfuly in the natural
w
o
r
l
dt
h
at
h
e
yb
ro
u
g
ht
re
m
e
n
d
o
u
sp
re
s
u
ret
ob
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ro
no
t
h
e
rs
p
e
c
i
e
s
.A
st
h
ep
o
p
u
-
lation of Homo sapiens
increased, lar
ge mamal species in several parts of the world
became extinct. Mamoths and the woly rhinoceros disapeared from Europe,
giant kangaros from Australia, and mamoths, mastodons, and horses from the
Americas. Archaeologists believe that changes in the earths climate might have al-
tered the natural environment enough to harm those species. In most cases, how-
e
v
e
r
,h
u
m
a
nh
u
n
t
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gp
ro
b
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hl
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oe
x
t
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c
t
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o
n
.T
h
u
s
,f
ro
m
their earliest days on earth, members of the species Homo sapiens
became efective
a
n
de
fc
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e
n
tc
o
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p
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t
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o
r
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en
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re
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rv
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s
i
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l
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t
s
p
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c
i
e
s
.
Paleolithic Society
By far the longest portion of the human experience on earth is the period historians
and archaeologists cal the paleolithic era, the old stone age. The principal charac-
teristic of the paleolithic era was that human beings foraged for their fod: they
hunted wild animals or gathered edible products of naturaly growing plants. The
paleolithic era extended from the evolution of the rst hominids until about twelve
t
h
o
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a
n
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e
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r
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P
e
o
p
l
e
s
In the absence of writen records, scholars have drawn inferences about paleolithic
economy and society from other kinds of evidence. Archaeologists have excavated
many sites that open windows on paleolithic life, and anthropologists have carefuly
studied hunting and gathering societies in the contemporary world. In the Amazon
b
a
s
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on the economic and social dynamics that shaped the experiences of prehistoric for-
agers. In combination, then, the studies of both archaeologists and anthropologists
h
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p
t
o
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u
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r
a
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t
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p
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h
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a
.
Ahuntingandgatheringeconomyvirtualypreventsindividualsfromacumulat-
i
n
g
p
r
i
v
a
t
e
p
ro
p
e
rt
y
a
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r
s
and gatherers must folow the animals that they stalk, and they must move with the
seasons in search of edible plant life. Given their mobility
, it is easy to se that, for
them, the notion of private, landed property has no meaning at al. Individuals pos-
s
e
s
o
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l
y
a
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c
ary
e
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t
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e
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move
. In the absence of acumulated wealth, hunters and gatherers of paleolithic
t
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-
cause of their age, strength, courage, inteligence, fertility
, force of personality
, or
some other trait. But personal or family wealth could not have served as a basis for
p
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 12
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C H A P T E R
1
|
B
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H
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erededibleplants,rots,nuts,andfruitsfromtheareanearthegroupscamp.Meat
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when the hunt does not suced. Because of the thorough interdependence of the
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to survive over a long period. During times of drought or famine, even smal bands
have trouble providing for themselves. Individual bands certainly have relationships
withtheirneighborsagrementsconcerningtheteritoriesthathegroupsexploit,
f
o
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The survival of hunting and gathering bands depends on a sophisticated under-
s
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 14
C H A P T E R
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ate burial acompanied by ritual observances. Perhaps the most notable is that of
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what Neandertal peoples were thinking when they buried their dead in that fashion.
Posibly they simply wanted to honor the memory of the departed, or perhaps they
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n
the life and death of individuals that none of their ancestors had apreciated. They
had developed a capacity for emotions and felings, and they cared for one another
e
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.
Homosapiens
wasmuchmoreintelectualyinventiveandcreativethan Homone-
a
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telectual prowes to the ability to construct powerful and exible languages for the
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o
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from trial and eror or from direct personal experience about the nature of the local
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r
of
-
spring, who then were able to make imediate use of it and furthermore were in a
god position to build on inherited information by devising increasingly efective
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.
From its earliest days on the earth, Homo sapiens
distinguished itself as a creative
species. At least 20,0 years ago,
Homo sapiens
was producing stone
blades with long cuting edges. By
140,0 years ago early humans had
l
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m
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shelsh from coastal waters, and
they had developed networks with
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high-quality obsidian stone over dis-
tances sometimes exceding 30
kilometers (185 miles). By 10,0
years ago they had devised means of
catching sh from dep waters. By
1
0
,
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y
e
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fashion sharp tols such as sewing
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.
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 15
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1
6
P A R T
I
|
T
h
e
E
a
r
l
y
C
o
m
p
l
e
x
S
o
c
i
e
t
i
e
s
,
3
5
0
t
o
5
0
B
.
C
.
E
.
nedles and barbed harpons out o
f
a
n
i
m
a
l
b
o
n
e
s
.
S
o
m
e
w
h
a
t
l
a
t
e
r
t
h
e
y
i
n
v
e
n
t
e
d
s
p
e
a
r
-
t
h
ro
w
e
r
s
m
a
l
s
l
i
n
g
s
that enabled hunters to hurl spears
at speds upwards of 160 kilometers
p
e
r
h
o
u
r
(
1
0
m
i
l
e
s
p
e
r
h
o
u
r
)
.
A
b
o
u
t
50,0 to 40,0 years ago, they
were fabricating ornamental beads,
necklaces, and bracelets, and shortly
t
h
e
re
a
f
t
e
r
t
h
e
y
b
e
g
a
n
p
a
i
n
t
i
n
g
i
m
a
g
e
s
o
f
h
u
m
a
n
a
n
d
a
n
i
m
a
l
s
u
b
j
e
c
t
s
.
A
b
o
u
t
10,0 years ago, they invented the
bow and arow
, a weapon that dra-
maticaly enhanced the power of
human beings with respect to other
a
n
i
m
a
l
s
p
e
c
i
e
s
.
The most visualy impresive cre-
ations of early Homo sapiens
are the
V
enus gurines and cave paintings
found at many sites of early human
habitation. Archaeologists use the
term V
enus gurines
named after
t
h
e
R
o
m
a
n
g
o
d
e
s
o
f
l
o
v
e
t
o
re
f
e
r
to smal sculptures of women, usu-
a
l
y
d
e
p
i
c
t
e
d
w
i
t
h
e
x
a
g
e
r
a
t
e
d
s
e
x
u
a
l
features. Most scholars believe that
the gures rect a dep interest in
fertility
. The prominent sexual fea-
tures of the V
enus gurines sugest
that the sculptors principal interests
w
e
re
f
e
c
u
n
d
i
t
y
a
n
d
t
h
e
g
e
n
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
new lifematers of imediate con-
cern to paleolithic societies. Some interpreters speculate that the gures had a place
i
n
r
i
t
u
a
l
o
b
s
e
rv
a
n
c
e
s
i
n
t
e
n
d
e
d
t
o
i
n
c
re
a
s
e
f
e
rt
i
l
i
t
y
.
Paintingsincavesfrequentedbyearlyhumansarethemostdramaticexamplesof
p
re
h
i
s
t
o
r
i
c
a
rt
.
T
h
e
k
n
o
w
n
e
x
a
m
p
l
e
s
o
f
c
a
v
e
a
rt
d
a
t
e
f
ro
m
a
b
o
u
t
h
i
rt
y
-
f
o
u
r
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
totwelvethousandyearsago,andmostofthemareincavesinsouthernFranceand
northern Spain. In that region alone, archaeologists have discovered more than one
hundred caves bearing prehistoric paintings. The best-known are Lascaux in France
andAltamirainSpain.Thereprehistoricpeoplesleftdepictionsofremarkablesensi-
t
i
v
i
t
y
a
n
d
p
o
w
e
r
.
M
o
s
t
o
f
t
h
e
s
u
b
j
e
c
t
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e
r
e
a
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,
e
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p
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i
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r
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a
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e
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u
c
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a
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a
m
-
m
o
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i
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o
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o
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c
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o
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e
n
u
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r
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,
t
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e
x
p
l
a
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a
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o
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f
o
r
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c
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p
a
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s
i
n
v
o
l
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s
a
c
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rt
a
i
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a
m
o
u
n
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o
f
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d
u
c
a
t
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g
u
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s
w
o
r
k
.
I
t
i
s
c
o
n
c
e
i
v
a
b
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t
h
a
t
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a
r
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i
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w
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f
o
r
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re
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y
a
e
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t
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t
i
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re
a
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o
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a
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i
f
y
t
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i
r
l
i
v
i
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q
u
a
rt
e
r
s
.
B
u
t
m
a
n
y
e
x
a
m
-
ples of cave art ocur in places that are almost inacesible to human beingsdep
w
i
t
h
i
nre
m
o
t
ec
h
a
m
b
e
r
s
,f
o
re
x
a
m
p
l
e
,o
ra
t
h
e
n
do
fl
o
n
ga
n
dc
o
n
s
t
r
i
c
t
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dp
a
s
a
g
e
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.
P
a
i
n
t
i
n
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s
i
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c
h
re
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p
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ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 16
C H A P T E R
1
|
B
e
f
o
re
H
i
s
t
o
ry
1
7
toexercisesympatheticmagictogaincontroloversubjects(inthiscase,gameani-
mals) by capturing their spirits (by way of acurate representations of their physical
f
o
rm
s
)
.
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s
o
n
a
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y
w
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f
o
r
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r
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e
a
l
o
f
t
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e
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n
c
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a
n
d
h
a
s
w
o
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w
i
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e
s
p
r
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rt
a
m
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h
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s
.
Whatever the explanation for prehistoric art, the production of the works them-
selves represented conscious and purposeful activity of a high order
. Early artists
compounded pigments and manufactured tols. They made paints from minerals,
plants, blod, saliva, water
, animal fat, and other available ingredients. They used
mortar and pestle for grinding pigments and mixing paints, which they aplied with
mos, frayed twigs and branches, or primitive brushes fabricated from hair
. The sim-
p
l
i
c
i
t
y
a
n
d
p
o
w
e
r
o
f
t
h
e
i
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re
p
re
s
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
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h
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l
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t
d
e
p
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m
p
re
s
i
o
n
s
o
n
m
o
d
e
rn
c
r
i
t
-
ics ever since the early twentieth century
, when their works became widely known.
The display of prehistoric artistic talent clearly testies once again to the remarkable
i
n
t
e
l
e
c
t
u
a
l
p
o
w
e
r
o
f
t
h
e
h
u
m
a
n
s
p
e
c
i
e
s
.
The Neolithic Era and the Transition to Agriculture
A
f
e
w
s
o
c
i
e
t
i
e
s
o
f
h
u
n
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
g
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
p
e
o
p
l
e
s
i
n
h
a
b
i
t
t
h
e
c
o
n
t
e
m
p
o
r
a
ry
w
o
r
l
d
,
a
l
-
though most of them do not thrive because agricultural and industrial societies have
taken over environments best suited to a foraging economy
. Demographers estimate
t
h
e
c
ure
n
t
n
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
h
u
n
t
e
r
s
a
n
d
g
a
t
h
e
re
r
s
t
o
b
e
a
b
o
u
t
h
i
rt
y
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
,
a
t
i
n
y
f
r
a
c
-
tion of the worlds human population of more than six bilion. The vast majority of
the worlds peoples, however
, have crosed an economic threshold of imense sig-
nicance. When human beings brought plants under cultivation and animals under
domestication, they dramaticaly altered the natural world and stered human soci-
e
t
i
e
s
i
n
e
w
d
i
re
c
t
i
o
n
s
.
C
a
v
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F
r
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a
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a
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s
.
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 17
1
8
P A R T
I
|
T
h
e
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a
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C
o
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o
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0
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o
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B
.
C
.
E
.
T
h
e
O
r
i
g
i
n
s
o
f
A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
re
The term neolithic era
means new stone age, as oposed to the old stone age of p
a
l
e
o
l
i
t
h
i
c
t
i
m
e
s
.
A
rc
h
a
e
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
s
r
s
t
u
s
e
d
t
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rm
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m
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-
guished the neolithic from the paleolithic era. Polished stone tols ocured in sites
w
h
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rep
e
o
p
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e
sre
l
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e
do
nc
u
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rt
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rs
u
b
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n
c
e
.T
o
d
a
y
the term neolithic era
refers to the early stages of agricultural society
, from about
t
w
e
l
v
e
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
t
o
s
i
x
t
h
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s
a
n
d
y
e
a
r
s
a
g
o
.
Because they depended on the bounty of nature, foraging peoples faced serious
r
i
s
k
s
.
D
ro
u
g
h
t
,
f
a
m
i
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e
,
d
i
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e
a
s
e
,
o
d
s
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e
x
t
re
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t
e
m
p
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r
a
t
u
re
s
,
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
r
n
a
t
u
r
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l
d
i
s
a
s
-
t
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r
s
c
o
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l
d
a
n
i
h
i
l
a
t
e
e
n
t
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re
c
o
m
u
n
i
t
i
e
s
.
E
v
e
n
i
n
g
o
d
t
i
m
e
s
,
m
a
n
y
h
u
n
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
g
a
t
h
-
ering peoples had to limit their populations so as not to exced the capacity of their
lands to suport them. They most likely resorted routinely to infanticide to control
t
h
e
i
r
n
u
m
b
e
r
s
.
N
e
o
l
i
t
h
i
c
p
e
o
p
l
e
s
s
o
u
g
h
t
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n
s
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m
s
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m
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u
l
a
r
f
o
d
s
u
p
l
i
e
s
b
y
e
n
-
couragingthegrowthofediblecropsandbringingwildanimalsintodependenceon
human kepers. Many scholars believe that women most likely began the systematic
c
a
re
o
f
p
l
a
n
t
s
.
A
s
t
h
e
p
r
i
n
c
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p
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t
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r
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o
r
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c
o
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u
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s
,
w
o
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n
b
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a
-
m
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i
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rw
i
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h
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i
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ec
y
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e
so
fp
l
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n
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dn
o
t
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e
dt
hef
e
c
t
so
fs
u
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dt
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e
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e
t
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.H
o
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o
rl
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ra
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o
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a
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e
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n
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f
kilingitformeat,neolithicmenbegantocaptureanimalsandomesticatethemby
p
r
o
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i
d
i
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g
f
o
r
t
h
e
i
r
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e
d
s
a
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d
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u
p
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rv
i
s
i
n
g
t
h
e
i
r
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r
e
d
i
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.
O
v
e
r
a
p
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r
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d
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c
a
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c
o
n
o
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s
.
By sugesting that agriculture brought about an imediate transformation of
human society
, the popular term agricultural revolution
is somewhat misleading.
N
e
o
l
i
t
h
i
c
E
r
a
T
w
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a
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.
ben06937.Ch01_001-029.qxd 8/30/07 9:04 AM Page 18
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C H A P T E R
1
|
B
e
f
o
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H
i
s
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1
9
The establishment of an agricultural economy was not an event that tok place at a
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gradualy learned how to cultivate crops and kep animals. It would be more apro-
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