Understanding Indigenous Studies: Activities for Units 1-5

Unit 1-5 Activities Rasheed Jomha Faculty of Science, University of Manitoba INDG-1220: Indigenous Peoples in Canada, Part 1 Professor James Chalmers October 11, 2023

Unit 1-5 Activities Unit 1: Activity 1 Indigenous Studies focuses on the cultures, histories, experiences, and contributions of Indigenous peoples worldwide. Fundamentally, it aims to comprehend and respect the many lifestyles, knowledge systems, and worldviews of Indigenous groups, who were frequently persecuted and seen as insignificant by colonial powers. This academic field covers a wide range of subjects, including but not restricted to anthropology, history, sociology, political science, environmental studies, literature, and art, all of which are treated from an Indigenous perspective and using Indigenous methodology. The acknowledgement of Indigenous sovereignty and continuous struggles for justice and self-determination is one of the core tenets of Indigenous Studies. In addition to showing their resiliency, cultural renewal, and activism during these difficulties, this discipline critically examines the historical effects of colonization, land dispossession, forced assimilation, and institutional prejudice encountered by Indigenous peoples. The importance of oral traditions, storytelling, and Indigenous languages in maintaining and passing down knowledge across generations is also acknowledged by Indigenous Studies. It also addresses current problems like healthcare inequities, environmental protection, and the revival of Indigenous languages and traditional practices. In the end, Indigenous Studies is a crucial academic endeavour that not only promotes social justice, equity, and respect for the rights and voices of Indigenous peoples all over the world but also helps us understand

Unit 1-5 Activities Indigenous cultures and history better. It promotes cooperation and understanding between Indigenous people and academia by acting as a bridge.

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Unit 1-5 Activities Unit 2: Activity 3 Q1: Identify and discuss the philosophy of burning in indigenous agriculture. The philosophy of burning in indigenous cultures came from a myth that they can control nature with fire (Kimmerer and Lake, 2001). They tried to control nature with fire by burning the land, this caused the people to be aware of the pros and cons of using fire. Fire can be used to bring new things to life, but it can also be used to destroy things. There must be a balance between the two forces otherwise one force will outweigh the other and more harm than good can occur (Kimmerer and Lake, 2001) Q2: What were the goals of indigenous burning? The goal Indigenous burning was to use fire to burn the land to make space for new crops to grow in the area. I also believe that there were other useful purposes for burning the land besides to promote crop growth. Other goals and purposes that indigenous burning was to help the people with things such as hunting, traveling, and to manage the land (Kimmerer and Lake, 2001). Q3: Outline the evidence shared to support Kimmerer & Lake's (2001) assertions.

Unit 1-5 Activities In the article written by Kimmerer and Lake (2001), there are many points that support their assertions. In the article it is mentioned that “Lewis (1993) documents more than 70 uses of fire, including tree felling, clearing travel corridors, fireproofing settlements, and hunting” (Kimmerer and Lake, 2001). This piece of evidence supports Kimmerer and Lakes assertions because it mentions multiple different advantages that really help us today. This suggests that Indigenous burning was not just used for agriculture but also used for things such as hunting and traveling. Another piece of evidence that support their assertion that fire can be used for both creative and destructive purposes. “The indigenous worldview emphasizes the dual nature, creative and destructive, of all forces. Fire can be a force for good as it warms homes and stimulates grasses, but it can also be immensely destructive” (Kimmerer and Lake, 2001).

Unit 1-5 Activities Unit 3: Activity 2 Explore Three Peoples listed below (completing this section will help prepare for the exam) Mi'kmaq Q1: According to the Mi'kmaq, what are the three parts of the spark of life in living things? The three parts of the spark of life in living things are: 1. A form that decays or disappears after death (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). 2. a spark that travels after death to the lands of the souls (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). 3. guardian spark or spirits that aid people during their earth walk (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Q2: Were they migratory or settled peoples at the time of contact? The Mi’kmaq were neither settled nor migratory (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Q3: According to RCAP, how does their creation story connect to their way of being? The creation story of the Mi’kmaq people connects to their way of being in a very interesting way. As the Mi’kmaq people believed that it was the lightning bolts that created the

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Unit 1-5 Activities earth, they believed that it was the sparks that gave birth to the human form and that the sparks gave continuity to the human form (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Niitsitapi (Blackfoot) Q1: What happens at the Annual Many Lodges Gathering? At the Annual Many Lodges Gathering, many people would come around and hold their own unique ceremonies. These people consist of all the main warrior, religious, women's, children's and police societies (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Q2: What role does the sacred pipe hold in Niitsitapi's spiritual beliefs? The sacred pipe holds a special role in Niitsitapi’s spiritual beliefs as it is was given to them by the creater and is used to pray “in search of wisdom, guidance, knowledge, and to bind all the relations together” (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Q3: How was the buffalo the basis of their economy?

Unit 1-5 Activities The buffalo was the basis of their economy because they were able to get almost all the things they needed from the buffalo. The buffalo gave them food, supplies, containers, transportation equipment, etc (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Q4: How were their leaders decided? Their leaders were not decided like others through a voting system. Their leaders were decided through their contributions and recognition. There was 2 essential things a person must have to become a leader. One of which is an outstanding war record, and second a reputation for generosity (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Q5: Describe how their Chiefs ruled. Their chiefs ruled by holding council meetings where different chiefs and heads of families would join to make decisions. The head chief would try to give direct oders to other councillors despite the fact that they may disagree with him and leave the camp (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996). Pacific Northwest Coast Q1 : Name the distinct language families found in the northwest coast region.

Unit 1-5 Activities Tlingit, Tsimshian (including Nisg_a'a and Gitksan), Haida, Nuxalk (Bella Coola), Kwakwa ka'wakw (formerly known as Kwakiutl), Nootka and Salish (Dussault and Erasmus, 1996).

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Unit 1-5 Activities Unit 4: Activity 2 Q1: Describe the roles of women in York Factory in the early 1800s The roles of women in the York Factory in the early 1800s was to clean the factory. They would also prepare line for snow shoes and knit them (Racette, 2012). Q2: Identify what women were being contracted to do for the Northwest and Hudson's Bay Companies both in the Big Houses and out in the fields. Women were being contracted to clean their own homes and clean the Big Houses serving for the McDonalds. They also had to keep the “Square clean” and make a “a certain number of tracking shoes for the voyageurs.” They were also required to plant and harvest the potatoes out in the fields (Racette, 2012). Q3: In the transition from Fur Trade to Rural Labourers what type of roles did women take on in the early 1900s

Unit 1-5 Activities In the transition from Fur Trade to Rural Labourers women took on roles such as “housework, cooking, dairying, laundry work, and make their own clothes and the greater part of those worn by the boys.” They also assist in the garden and help milk the cows in the summer (Racette, 2012).

Unit 1-5 Activities Unit 5: Activity 3 Fox war Opening : The Fox lived on the southeast part of Lake Michigan. They encountered the French in the late 1660s. Initial relations : During the 1660s the Fox nation was hostile towards many allies of the French. However influential figures such as coureur de bois and fort commander Nicolas Perrot were able to keep the peace between the two nations. Turning point of initial conflict : 50 years later the Fox nation decided to move closer to the French port of Detroit, where an Aboriginal community was already gathered. The tension between the Fox nation and the French allies resurfaced. Development of Tension : Tensions between the nations rose rapidly and in 1712, a group of Odahwah attacked a close the Mascouten nation who were closely allied with the fox nation. The Mascouten took shelter with the Fox nation who then led a counterattack against the opposition. Most of the nations in the region joined and allied with the Odahwah and led a siege battle that lasted 19 days. Approximately 1000 Fox and Mascoutens were killed or taken prisoner.

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Unit 1-5 Activities Point of conflict : Frances allies frequently asked the governor to supply them with troops in order to take down the Fox nation. The governor suggested to them that it would be more beneficial to them if they tried to make amends with the Fox nation. However, before they can come to an agreement with the Fox nation, the Fox nation launched an attack against Illinois and the French coureurs de bois. The Canadian authorities then sent troops in the hope of scaring the enemy. In 1716, 450 French soldiers and 350 warriors led by Louis Laporte de Louvigny. These groups of warriors attack the main Fox village. Abatement: After Louvigny left the country at peace in 1716, the Fox continued their raid against Illinois and the French. The French tried to come to an agreement with the Fox to restore peace, but they refused. Resolution : After the French tried to establish peace between them and the Fox nation, they decided to fully exterminate the Fox. In 1730, the Illinois warriors and allies gathered to take over the Fox nation once and for all. More than 500 Fox were killed and many were taken captive. Closing : in 1735, a final French campaign was set against the Fox. The Fox already suffered greatly from previous attacks, but the French were set to finish them off. Most of the nations refused to fight with the French, and a some refused to fight when they arrived at the destination causing the attack to fail.

Unit 1-5 Activities The Iroquois Wars Opening : In 1629, the Kirke brothers were serving England. During their service they drove the French out of the St. Lawrence Valley. Initial relations : After taking possession of New France in 1632, the French discovered that their old allies conflicted with the Iroquois. In this battle it was the Iroquois who were carrying out attacks in the valley of the St. Lawrence. In essence, they thought the Iroquois were trying to dominate the trade by destroying their rivals and expanding their sources of pelts through war in order to acquire products from Europe. They had three options for achieving these objectives: either take control of new hunting areas, work as middlemen between Europeans and Aboriginal nations, or wait along riverbanks to ambush and plunder Aboriginal convoys heading to the French trading posts. This understanding led to the Iroquois Wars being referred to as the "Beaver Wars." Turning point of Initial Conflict : Numerous Aboriginal communities, especially the Iroquois, were severely impacted by the introduction of infectious diseases to which the native peoples lacked antibodies. In the first half of the 17th century alone, diseases of European origin are thought to have killed up to half of the people in the St. Lawrence Valley and the Great Lakes region. It appears likely that the Iroquois launched greatly heightened

Unit 1-5 Activities "mourning wars" in reaction to this extraordinary number of deaths in order to replenish their dead, occasionally taking over a thousand prisoners in a single attack. Development of Tensions : In addition to the seeming need to replace their deceased, the Iroquois' desire to subjugate entire communities was driven by more general political objectives, including as hegemonic ambitions and the desire to rule over neighbouring countries. The Iroquois League's founding story, which served as its formal constitution, reflects these goals quite clearly. It stated that in addition to forging an alliance amongst the Five Nations, the League would use force or diplomacy to bring peace to all the adjacent countries on the Iroquois homeland. An extensive coalition would emerge, wherein the Iroquois perceived themselves wielding a certain level of power due to their pivotal function as intermediaries between the other countries. Point of Conflict : However, it is certain that the Iroquois battles against the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Valley Aboriginal groups posed a severe threat to both the French government's attempts to maintain a general peace among the Aboriginal peoples and the New France fur trade. As a result, French involvement in the battle increased. The allies were able to carry on the fight and severely damage the Iroquois people until the late 1630s, even with the French providing very meagre support. Along with trying to negotiate a separate peace with the French that excluded the other Aboriginal nations, the Iroquois also attempted to dissolve the Franco-Aboriginal alliance. There were two attempts: in 1641 and 1645, respectively. The

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Unit 1-5 Activities result of their efforts was a Franco-Iroquois treaty, approved in 1645, even though it directly contradicted the French goal of establishing a general peace among the Aboriginal tribes. This shift in the balance of power was only possible because the Iroquois were able to obtain firearms. Abatement: After Louis XIV was given the thrown and became the king of France, many things changed. The King sent soldiers to secure peace with Iroquois. In 1665, they landed in Quebec City and began building forts on the Richelieu River which was the Iroquois main route to the St. Lawrence valley. However, upon landing in Quebec City, they were not prepared for the winter. The soldiers would often get lost in their tracks and take unknown routes before arriving to their destination 3 weeks later. During this expedition, almost 400 soldiers died from hypothermia, hunger and diseases. Resolution : Since 1663, the French had been holding peace negotiations with the Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations, four of the Iroquois Five Nations. The negotiations were sparked by the arrival of the Carignan-Salières Regiment, and in 1665 and 1666, all four countries approved the accords. However, the Mohawk's categorical rejection of participating in the dialogue initiated by the other League members led the French to press their encroachment into Mohawk lands. The Mohawk made the decision to submit and approved the peace treaty at Quebec City in July 1667 after realizing that the French could attack them in their communities and on their own territory.

Unit 1-5 Activities Closing : The Iroquois population decreased by half between 1689 and 1697 as a result of devastating diseases and raids by the Great Lakes tribes. Furthermore, the British allies that had previously backed the Iroquois in their struggle against New France abandoned them after the Treaty of Ryswick concluded the French and British conflict in 1697. On August 4, 1701, the Iroquois signed the Great Peace of Montreal, feeling isolated, powerless, and scared by the French military's increasing might, which had taken the war to many of their communities. The Mi’kmaq War Opening : The Mi'kmaq and European fishermen first came into contact in the 1500s. By the 17th century, the Mi'kmaq and French fur traders, Acadian settlers, and missionaries had established partnerships based on trade, kinship, and religion. Initial Relations : These centuries-old ties served as the cornerstone for the political and military partnership that emerged in the 18th century, amid heightened hostilities and open warfare, between the leaders of the Mi'kmaq people and the French Crown. The French and British wanted to grow their colonial empires in Mi'kma'ki, the traditional Mi'kmaq territory, which included modern-day Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, the eastern coast of New

Unit 1-5 Activities Brunswick, and the Gaspé Peninsula around Chaleur Bay. The Mi'kmaq, on the other hand, wanted to trade while retaining their land. Turning Point of Initial Conflict : The British were the shared enemy of the Mi'kmaq and French, who banded together against them in an increasingly hostile situation. Development of tensions : The alliance, which was formally reaffirmed annually through feasts, speeches, and gift-giving, represented the diplomatic understandings of the Mi'kmaq and the French. The yearly renewal rites, which started in the 1720s, were held at Skmaqn– Port-la-Joye on Île-Royale (now Cape Breton Island) and Port Toulouse on Skmaqn–Port-la- Joye on Prince Edward Island. During these events, the Mi’kmaq were given weapons and pledged to fight the British as a group. Both parties needed each other's support: the Mi'kmaq needed French weapons to fight the British because they were encroaching on their land base, and France's position in the Maritime region depended on the Mi'kmaq's military support because French garrisons were too small to defeat the British on their own. Point of Conflict : The Maritime region's colonial wars were directly impacted by the alliance's effectiveness. with fighting with French forces, the Mi'kmaq also carried out independent raids on British ships and towns. A force of New Englanders raided Port-la-Joye in 1745, and a detachment of Mi'kmaq, French, and Acadians fought them. Later, in 1746, an allied force of French and Mi'kmaq fought the British at Port-la-Joye once again.

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Unit 1-5 Activities Abatement: Following more than fifty years of animosity, Great Britain took control of the once-powerful Fortress of Louisbourg on Île-Royale in 1758, causing France to lose its influence in the Maritime region. Resolution: The Acadians were forced off the island by the British, who also established Fort Amherst on the location of Port-la-Joye. Ile-Saint-Jean was annexed by the British. Closing : Collaboratively, the Mi'kmaq Confederacy of Prince Edward Island and Skmaqn– Port-la-Joye–Fort Amherst designed the memorial honouring the Mi'kmaq-French Alliances of the 18th century.

References Kimmerer, R. W., & Lake, F. K. (2001). The role of indigenous burning in land management. Journal of Forestry , 99 (11), 36-41. https://search.lib.umanitoba.ca/permalink/01UMB_INST/k6qbb2/cdi_proquest_miscell aneous_19923387 Dussault, R. and Erasmus, G. (1996). Looking Forward Looking Back Part ONE The relationship in Historical Perspective. The Royal Commission on aboriginql Peoples, Vol. 1, 47-87. https://universityofmanitoba.desire2learn.com/content/enforced3/553079- 22573.202390/RRCAP1.4%20(1).pdf?_&d2lSessionVal=MuPdDiRb5ZbQMSeWYt07 QvPql&ou=553079 Farrell Racette, S. (2012). Nimble Fingers and Strong Backs: First Nations and Metis Women in Fur Trade and Rural Economics. (p. 148-162). University of Illinois Press

https://universityofmanitoba.desire2learn.com/content/enforced3/553079- 22573.202390/Indigenous_Women_and_Work_From_Labor_to_Activism_---- _(9._Nimble_Fingers_and_Strong_Backs_First_Nations_and_M%C3%A9tis_Women_in _Fu...).pdf?_&d2lSessionVal=MuPdDiRb5ZbQMSeWYt07QvPql&ou=553079 Government of Canada, (2018). The Arrival of The Europeans. https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/military-history/history- heritage/popular-books/aboriginal-people-canadian-military/arrival-europeans-17th- century-wars.html Government of Canada, (2019). The 18 th Century Mi’kmaq-French Alliance. https://www.canada.ca/en/parks-canada/news/2019/08/the-18th-century-mikmaq-french- alliance.html

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Unit 1-5 Activities

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