Chapter 22, Problem 59E

Interpretation Introduction

(a)

Interpretation:

The terms secondary protein structure and tertiary protein structure are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Proteins are the polymers of amino acids also known as polypeptides. They are formed by the peptide bonding between two acids formed by the elimination of the water molecule between the carboxylic acid and amine group leading to the formation of the amide group. Various structure or forms of the proteins are found in the body.

Answer to Problem 59E

The secondary protein structure is found in the form of $\text{α-helix and β-sheets}$. An $\text{α-}$ helix is a structure acquired by the primary structure coiling. The $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet is the positioning of the primary protein structures sideways joined by hydrogen bonds. In these structures, the quantity of hydrogen bonding is found in large quantities. The protein’s tertiary structure curls the secondary protein structure itself. That is, suppose the helix is a telephone cord hooked on itself.

Explanation of Solution

The secondary structure of the proteins is found in the form of $\text{α-helix and β-sheets}$. An $\text{α-}$ helix is a structure obtained by the coiling of the primary structure. The $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet is the placement of the primary structures of proteins side-ways joined via hydrogen bonds. The amount of hydrogen bonding is found in maximum amounts in these structures. The tertiary structure of the proteins is curling of the secondary protein structure of itself. That is, assume the $\text{α-}$ helix to be a cord of telephone which is curled on itself. The illustration for that is shown below.

Figure 1

Conclusion

The terms secondary protein structure and tertiary protein structure are distinguished rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(b)

Interpretation:

The terms $\text{α-}$ helix, $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Proteins are the polymers of amino acids also known as polypeptides. They are formed by the peptide bonding between two acids formed by the elimination of the water molecule between the carboxylic acid and amine group leading to the formation of the amide group. Various structure or forms of the proteins are found in the body.

Answer to Problem 59E

The protein’s secondary structure is one of the protein structures. It is discovered in two forms, $\text{α-}$ helix, and $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet An $\text{α-}$ helix is a structure acquired by the primary structure coiling. The $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet is the positioning of the primary protein structures sideways joined by hydrogen bonds.

Explanation of Solution

Secondary structure of the protein is one of the structures of the proteins. It is found in two forms $\text{α-}$ helix and $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet. An $\text{α-}$ helix is a structure obtained by the coiling of the primary structure. The $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet is the placement of the primary structures of proteins side-ways joined via hydrogen bonds.

The structure of $\text{α-}$ helix is given below.

Figure 2

The structure of $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet is given below.

Figure 3

Conclusion

The terms $\text{α-}$ helix, $\text{β-}$ pleated sheet are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(c)

Interpretation:

The terms reversible enzyme inhibitors and irreversible enzyme inhibitors are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Enzymes are the biochemical catalysts present in the human body or livings organism to catalyst their biochemical process. Enzymes fasten up the rate of reaction by a very large factor.

Inhibitors are the compounds that stops the working of the enzyme as a catalyst. Inhibitors are of two reversible enzyme inhibitors and irreversible enzyme inhibitors.

Answer to Problem 59E

The enzyme includes an active site where the molecule of the substrate arrives and binds to the catalysis with the enzyme. The active site has the supplementary components displaying attraction forces to bind the molecule of the substrate to it. In the induced fit model, the bonding of the substrate with an enzyme was assumed to be reversible. That is, after the job is finished, it will leave the active site. Reversible enzyme inhibitors are molecules comparable to substrate molecules with the same type of atom or groups on the outside complementing the forces of attraction to occur at the active site. In this manner, the inhibitor blocks the active site accessible for the substrate and inhibits the biochemical reaction. Sometimes it has been discovered that the substrate stays attached to the active site which is its connection is irreversible. The compounds performing this type of activity are known as irreversible enzyme inhibitors.

Explanation of Solution

The Enzyme contains an active site where the substrate molecule comes and binds with the enzyme for the catalysis. The active site has complementary elements showing attraction forces in order to binds the substrate molecule to it. In the induced fit model, it was assumed that the bonding of substrate with an enzyme is reversible. That is it will leave the active site after the work is done. Reversible enzyme inhibitors are the molecules similar to substrate molecule having the same kind of atom or groups present on the outside that is complementary to the attraction forces to occur at the active site. In this way, inhibitor blocks the active site available for the substrate and inhibits the biochemical reaction. Sometimes it has been found that substrate remains bonded to an active site that is its bonding is irreversible. The compounds performing this kind of activity are known as irreversible enzyme inhibitors.

Conclusion

The terms reversible enzyme inhibitors and irreversible enzyme inhibitors are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(d)

Interpretation:

The terms $\text{α-}$ glucose and $\text{β-}$ glucose are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Glucose is a sugar molecule also known as carbohydrates. It is a six carbon aldose sugar which means it contains aldehyde and hydroxide groups. Glucose has two forms $\text{α-}$ glucose and $\text{β-}$ glucose.

Answer to Problem 59E

The $\text{α-}$ glucose and $\text{β-}$ glucose are different from each other in terms of placement of hydroxide group at carbon-1 in the chair form. In $\text{α-}$ glucose, the hydroxide group is at the axial position and in $\text{β-}$ glucose, the hydroxide group is at the equatorial position.

Explanation of Solution

The two forms of glucose, $\text{α-}$ glucose and $\text{β-}$ glucose are distinguished from the chair forms of their pyranose structures. In the $\text{α-}$ glucose, the hydroxide group of the carbon-1 is at the axial position while in the $\text{β-}$ glucose, the hydroxide group is at the equatorial position.

The structures of both forms of glucose are shown below.

Figure 4

Conclusion

The terms $\text{α-}$ glucose and $\text{β-}$ glucose are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(e)

Interpretation:

The terms $\text{α-1, 4}$ and $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Glucose is a sugar molecule also known as carbohydrates. It is a six carbon aldose sugar which means it contains aldehyde and hydroxide groups. Glucose has two forms $\text{α-}$ glucose and $\text{β-}$ glucose. The polymer of glucose is found to consist of $\text{α-1, 4}$ and $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages.

Answer to Problem 59E

The $\text{α-1, 4}$ linkages are found in starch a polymer of $\text{α-}$ glucose and $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages are found in cellulose a polymer of $\text{β-}$ glucose.

Explanation of Solution

The polymers of glucose are starch and cellulose. The cellulose is a polymer of $\text{β-}$ glucose formed by the $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages between the glucose units. The starch is the polymer of $\text{α-}$ glucose formed by the $\text{α-1, 4}$ linkages between them. Both $\text{α-1, 4}$ and $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages are known as glycosidic linkages. The difference between both of them is in the type of glucose occurring these linkages as already discussed. One more difference is $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages leads to the formation of straight chain polymer while $\text{α-1, 4}$ linkages lead to the formation of the linear chain in the form of stairs.

The structure of cellulose with $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages is shown below.

Figure 5

The structure of starch with $\text{α-1, 4}$ linkages is shown below.

Figure 6

Conclusion

The terms $\text{α-1, 4}$ and $\text{β-1, 4}$ linkages are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(f)

Interpretation:

The terms fats, oils are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Lipids are the water-insoluble compounds found in the living organisms. Lipids are parted into three classes (1) Fats, oils and phospholipids, (2) waxes, and (3) steroids.

All these compounds are insoluble in polar solvents like water because of the large presence of hydrophobic groups in them.

Answer to Problem 59E

The structure of fats and oils are the same. The difference between them is the state they acquire at room temperature. The fats are solid and oils are liquid at room temperature.

Explanation of Solution

Fats and oils are the triesters of long-chain carboxylic acids known as fatty acids. The ester is formed from simple alcohol glycerol. The fats and oils are also referred to as triacylglycerols. The fats at room temperature are solid while the oils are liquid at room temperature.

Conclusion

The terms fats, oils are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(g)

Interpretation:

The terms saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Fatty acids are the long-chain carboxylic acids. There may a saturated group attached to a carboxylic acid group or unsaturated group. On the basis of that fatty acids are of two types: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids.

Answer to Problem 59E

Saturated fatty acids are compounds that do not have a double bond or have a fully saturated bond between carbon atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature, whereas saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature. Unsaturated acids are more useful to the body than saturated fatty acids.

Explanation of Solution

Saturated fatty acids are the compounds having no double bond or have the fully saturated bonds between carbon atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bond between the carbon atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature while saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature. Unsaturated are more beneficial for the body rather than saturated fatty acids.

Conclusion

The terms saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(h)

Interpretation:

The terms triacylglycerols, phospholipids are to be distinguished in the scientific terms.

Concept introduction:

Lipids are the water-insoluble compounds found in the living organisms. Lipids are parted into three classes (1) Fats, oils and phospholipids, (2) waxes, and (3) steroids.

All these compounds are insoluble in polar solvents like water because of the large presence of hydrophobic groups in them.

Answer to Problem 59E

Fats and oils are the triesters of long-chain carboxylic acids known as fatty acids. The ester is formed from simple glycerol alcohol. The fats and oils are also referred to as triacylglycerols. Phospholipids are also the same as triacylglycerols, but their backbone is an alcohol with two fatty acids and a phosphate group instead of glycerol as the backbone and three fatty acids in triacylglycerols.

Explanation of Solution

Fats and oils are the triesters of long-chain carboxylic acids known as fatty acids. The ester is formed with simple alcohol glycerol. The fats and oils are also known as triacylglycerols. Phospholipids are also same as triacylglycerols but their backbone is an alcohol having two fatty acids and phosphate group instead of glycerol as a backbone and three fatty acids in triacylglycerols.

Conclusion

The terms triacylglycerols, phospholipids are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(i)

Interpretation:

The terms triacylglycerols, waxes are to be distinguished in the scientific terms

Concept introduction:

Lipids are the water-insoluble compounds found in the living organisms. Lipids are parted into three classes (1) Fats, oils and phospholipids, (2) waxes, and (3) steroids.

All these compounds are insoluble in polar solvents like water because of the large presence of hydrophobic groups in them.

Answer to Problem 59E

Fats and oils are the triesters of long-chain carboxylic acids known as fatty acids. The ester is formed with simple alcohol glycerol. Fats and oils are also known as triacylglycerols. Waxes are also ester, but with a long carbon chain monohydroxy alcohol.

Explanation of Solution

Fats and oils are the triesters of long-chain carboxylic acids known as fatty acids. The ester is formed with simple alcohol glycerol. The fats and oils are also known as triacylglycerols. Waxes are also ester but with a monohydroxyl alcohol with a long carbon chain.

Conclusion

The terms triacylglycerols, waxes are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(j)

Interpretation:

The terms waxes, steroids are to be distinguished in the scientific terms

Concept introduction:

Lipids are the water-insoluble compounds found in the living organisms. Lipids are parted into three classes (1) Fats, oils and phospholipids, (2) waxes, and (3) steroids.

All these compounds are insoluble in polar solvents like water because of the large presence of hydrophobic groups in them.

Answer to Problem 59E

Waxes are the esters of fatty acids with a long carbon chain of monohydroxy alcohol. Steroids differ greatly from waxes. First, they do not contain an ester group. Second is that steroid contains a fused system of four rings. Three are six-carbon rings and one is five-carbon rings.

Explanation of Solution

Waxes are the esters of fatty acids with a long carbon chain monohydroxy alcohol. Steroids are very different from waxes. First, they do not contain any ester group. Second is steroid contains a four ring fused system. Three are six carbon and one is five carbon ring. The structure of one of the steroids cholesterol is shown below.

Figure 7

Conclusion

The terms waxes and steroids are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(k)

Interpretation:

The terms nucleoside and nucleotide are to be distinguished in the scientific terms

Concept introduction:

Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids. DNA and RNA are examples of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of three parts (a) cyclic nitrogenous base (b) a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose sugar) (c) phosphate group.

Answer to Problem 59E

Nucleic acids are nucleotide polymers. Nucleotides and nucleosides differ from each other in such a way that nucleoside does not contain any phosphate group associated with sugar. A nucleoside is merely a combination of base-sugar. Nucleotides are a combination of phosphate and base-sugar.

Explanation of Solution

Nucleic acids are the polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides and nucleoside differ from each other in a way that nucleoside does not contain any phosphate group linked to sugar. A nucleoside is just a base-sugar combination. Nucleotides are phosphate and base-sugar combination.

Conclusion

The terms nucleoside and nucleotide are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(l)

Interpretation:

The terms thymine and uracil are to be distinguished in the scientific terms

Concept introduction:

DNA and RNA are the polymers of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of three parts (a) cyclic nitrogenous base (b) a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose sugar) (c) phosphate group.

The cyclic nitrogenous bases are of two types (a) Purines (b) Pyrimidines.

Answer to Problem 59E

Thymine and uracil are both a pyrimidine nitrogen base consisting of a monocyclic ring. Their structure is very comparable to each other, the only distinction is that in the thymine there is one additional methyl group. Thymine is found only in DNA and Uracil is found only in DNA. These are the two cyclic nitrogen bases that differ in DNA and RNA.

Explanation of Solution

Thymine and uracil are both pyrimidine nitrogenous base consists of a monocyclic ring. Their structure is very similar to each other the only difference is there is one extra methyl group in the thymine. Thymine is only found in DNA and Uracil is only found in DNA. These are the two cyclic nitrogenous bases which are different in DNA and RNA.

The structures of thymine and uracil are given below.

Figure 8

Conclusion

The terms thymine and uracil are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.

Interpretation Introduction

(m)

Interpretation:

The terms $\text{α-}$ helix and double helix are to be distinguished in the scientific terms

Concept introduction:

Secondary structure of proteins consists of a helical structure known as $\text{α-}$ helix. In this primary structural proteins are coiled to give this structure. DNA is the polymer of nucleic acids. It consists of two strand of polymeric nucleic acid coiled around each other in a helical shape.

Answer to Problem 59E

The $\text{α-}$ helix and double helix are two distinct molecules connected with two different molecules. The $\text{α-}$ helix is a secondary helical protein structure. The double helix is connected to DNA. Its two strands are both helical in form and coiled around each other.

Explanation of Solution

The $\text{α-}$ helix and double helix are two different associated with two different molecules. The $\text{α-}$ helix is a helical secondary structure of proteins. The double helix is linked to DNA. Its two strands are both helical in shape and are coiled around each other.

The structure of $\text{α-}$ helix is shown below.

Figure 9

The structure of double helix is shown below.

Figure 10

Conclusion

The terms $\text{α-}$ helix and double helix are distinguished in the scientific terms rightfully above.