Using the two images of a study attached, answer the following questions:1. What was the control condition/group in this study? State how you know this was the control group. Answer in max 4 sentences.2. What was the independent variable(s) in this study? State how you know. Max 4 sentence answer. process of writing where not as much information can berecorded.The results of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) in whichlonghand notes improved performance, conflict with the find-ings of Bui et al. (2013) during which those who took notes on acomputer recalled more information than those who took notesby hand. According to the encoding specificity principle, thecontext of encoding (e.g., environmental cues or words in thesurrounding area) is stored alongside learned information in away that enables this environmental material to later serve as aretrieval cue (Bloch & Vakil, 2017; Tulving & Thomson,1973). As a result, individuals who complete an assessmentunder conditions that match the initial learning environmentrecall more information than those who complete learning andtesting under differing conditions (Tulving & Thomson, 1973).Therefore, if one's mode of note taking (i.e., by hand or on acomputer) is among the contextual information that is stored atthe time of learning, then completing the test in the same waymay lead to better performance. This idea is consistent with theresults of Bui et al. (2013) because the assessments were com-pleted on computers, and individuals who took notes on acomputer demonstrated better performance than those whotook notes by hand. This concept was further explored byBarrett et al. (2014).The research of Barrett et al. (2014) assessed whether con-gruent note and test taking modes could improve test perfor-mance. This was examined by asking participants to watch a 15minute lecture about writing term papers in APA style whiletaking notes either by hand or on a computer. After collectingthese notes, all participants were given a test consisting of free-response questions based on the lecture material either on acomputer or by hand. This resulted in two congruent condi-tions: (1) individuals who took their notes and test by hand and(2) individuals who completed their notes and assessment on acomputer. Relatedly, there were two incongruent conditions:(1) taking notes by hand then completing the test on a computerand (2) recording notes on a computer then filling out theassessment by hand. Individuals in congruent conditions per-formed better on assessments than individuals in incongruentconditions, supporting the idea of note taking mode as contex-tual information that may be stored and later used to facilitatememory retrieval (Barrett et al., 2014).The current study aimed to assess how test performance isimpacted by congruency between mode of note taking andmode of test taking. We aimed to replicate and expand the workof Barrett et al. (2014) by testing whether their findings remainconsistent when participants are tested following a delay andare provided the opportunity to study their notes. Furthermore,we implemented both factual and conceptual questions for adifferent type of lecture material. The findings of Barrett et al.(2014) demonstrated that individuals with congruent note tak-ing and testing modes performed better on assessments thanindividuals who had incongruent note taking and testingmodes. In addition, the findings of Bui et al. (2013) appear toreinforce this concept because participants completed theirassessments on a computer, and those who took notes on acomputer performed better than those who took notes by hand.As a result, it is hypothesized that note taking mode is stored aspart of one's learning environment and can thus be reinstatedduring the quiz resulting in better test performance. In this way,it is predicted that individuals who are in congruent conditionswill score higher than individuals in incongruent conditions.MethodParticipantsEighty undergraduate students from Rochester Institute ofTechnology consented to participate in the current study inexchange for research credit in their Psychology course. Parti-cipants included 44 females and 36 males. The age of partici-pants ranged from 18 to 22 with a mean age of 19.14 (SD = 1.06).The participants were asked to report the main method they useto take notes in their classes. Forty-two participants (52.5%)reported taking notes by hand, 29 (36.25%) reported taking notesby hand in some classes and using a laptop in others, and nineparticipants (11.25%) reported using only a laptop to take notes.Participants were assigned to one of four conditions: (1) takenotes by hand and complete the quiz by hand (congruent), (2)take notes by hand and complete the quiz using a laptop (incon-gruent), (3) take notes using a laptop and take the quiz using alaptop (congruent), or (4) take notes using a laptop and take thequiz by hand (incongruent).MaterialsDemographic sheet 1. On the first day, participants were pre-sented with Demographic Sheet 1, which included open-endedinquiries of age, gender, ethnicity, and major. This form addi-tionally included both multiple choice and open-ended ques-tions regarding phone and online distractions that oneexperienced during the presentation (e.g., "Did you go onsocial media, email, or other unrelated websites during thepresentation?").TED talk presentations. Four TED Talks of about 15 minutes inlength were selected as learning materials for participants inthis study. These TED Talks discussed psychological researchand constructs that the participants were unlikely to haveencountered previously. The topics included why we laugh, therelationship between frustration and creativity, stress and beha-vior, and the feeling of regret. As part of the first day, eachgroup of one to three participants took notes on one of thesevideos as it was projected onto white boards located at the frontand right side of the room.Computers. Dell Latitude E5470 laptops with screen dimensionsof 13.2" x 9.1" were used by participants in all computerconditions.Memory assessments. During the second day, participants weregiven an assessment corresponding to the viewed TED Talk.These tests were formatted with the TED Talk title and link at Total Score1098710Notes by HandNote Taking ConditionQuiz by Hand Laptop QuizNotes Using a LaptopFigure I. Overall mean quiz score (out of 10) for the various notetaking and quiz taking methods.the top of the page followed by 10 open ended questions. Ofthese questions, five were conceptual and five were factual asdefined by Kornmann et al. (2016) as well as O'Connor andKlein (2004). During scoring, factual questions were marked aseither right (1 point) or wrong (0 points), while conceptualquestions were scored on a graded scale depending on thenumber of components answered correctly within the question.Demographic sheet 2. Another demographic sheet was com-pleted on the second day. This survey involved multiple choicequestions regarding participant note taking and testing condi-tions (i.e., by hand or computer) as well as their preferred notetaking method and most frequently used note taking method(e.g., "How do you prefer to take notes?"). These items werefollowed by short answer questions of time spent distracted bytechnology during the study period (e.g., "How much time didyou spend on social media, email, or other unrelated websitesduring the allotted study period?").ProcedureDuring the first day, participants entered a classroom and sat atdesks that were arranged to resemble a traditional lecturecourse. On each participant's desk, was an open laptop or apen and paper, depending on whether they were in the laptop orhand note taking condition. All participants in a given trialperiod were assigned to the same note taking and testconditions.After being seated, participants were asked to view one offour 15 minute TED Talks while taking notes in their assignedmedium. Following the presentation, participants either sub-mitted their online notes to an email made specifically for thepurposes of this study, or they handed their notes directly to aresearcher. Participants were then asked to complete Demo-graphic Sheet 1.Forty-eight hours after watching the TED talk and takingnotes, participants arrived at the same classroom to take thequiz. At this time, participants sat at a desk with a computer ifthey had taken notes on a computer or at an empty desk if theyhad taken notes by hand. Notes were then passed back toFactual Score54.543.532.521.510.50INotes by HandNote Taking ConditionQuiz by Hand Laptop Quiz=INotes Using a LaptopFigure 2. Mean quiz score for the factual questions (out of 5) for thevarious note taking and quiz taking methods.participants who took notes by hand, and those who took notesonline were asked to once again open their notes on the laptop.Following a 10 minute study period, participants wereinstructed to put away their notes. In incongruent testing con-ditions, participants either turned off their computers (i.e.,notes on computer and test by hand condition) or were givena computer (i.e., notes by hand and test on computer condition).Those with a computer were asked to open the test online, andindividuals taking the test by hand were provided with a printedassessment. Once these forms were collected, participants weregiven Demographic Sheet 2 to complete and submit.ResultsFour different TED talks were used in the current study. Weran a one-way ANOVA to determine if the information ineach of the four videos was equally challenging. There wereno significant differences based on video for the overall quizscore, F(3, 76) 1.226, p > .05, score on the factual ques-tions, F(3, 76) = 0.787, p > .05, or score on the conceptualquestions, F(3, 76) = 2.418, p > .05.A 2 (note-taking method: hand or laptop) × 2 (quiz method:hand or laptop) ANOVA was conducted to examine the overallquiz score. Results revealed a main effect of note-takingmethod, F(1, 76) = 8.659, p < .05, n² = 0.102. Participantswho took notes by hand scored higher on the quiz (M = 8.58,SD = 0.99) than those who took notes using a laptop (M= 7.64,SD = 1.85). There was a significant effect for quiz method suchthat participants who took the quiz by hand (M = 8.51, SD =1.19) performed better than those who took the quiz using alaptop (M = 7.70, SD = 1.53), F(1, 76) = 6.504, p< .05, n²0.079. There was no interaction between note-taking methodand quiz method, F(1, 76) = 2.11, p > .05 (see Figure 1).=A 2 × 2 ANOVA was also computed for the factual ques-tions and conceptual questions, separately. For the factualquestions, students who took notes by hand (M = 4.15, SD =0.83) performed the same as students who took notes using alaptop (M = 4.05, SD = 0.96), F(1, 76) = 0.250, p > .05. Therewas also no difference in score based on quiz method, F(1,76)= 1.56, p > .05, with the participants completing the quiz by

Answered: Using the two images of a study…

Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)

5th Edition

ISBN:9780134477961

Author:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White

Publisher:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White

Chapter1: The Science Of Psychology

Section: Chapter Questions

Problem 1TY

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Question

Using the two images of a study attached, answer the following questions:

1. What was the control condition/group in this study? State how you know this was the control group. Answer in max 4 sentences.

2. What was the independent variable(s) in this study? State how you know. Max 4 sentence answer.

process of writing where not as much information can be
recorded.
The results of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) in which
longhand notes improved performance, conflict with the find-
ings of Bui et al. (2013) during which those who took notes on a
computer recalled more information than those who took notes
by hand. According to the encoding specificity principle, the
context of encoding (e.g., environmental cues or words in the
surrounding area) is stored alongside learned information in a
way that enables this environmental material to later serve as a
retrieval cue (Bloch & Vakil, 2017; Tulving & Thomson,
1973). As a result, individuals who complete an assessment
under conditions that match the initial learning environment
recall more information than those who complete learning and
testing under differing conditions (Tulving & Thomson, 1973).
Therefore, if one's mode of note taking (i.e., by hand or on a
computer) is among the contextual information that is stored at
the time of learning, then completing the test in the same way
may lead to better performance. This idea is consistent with the
results of Bui et al. (2013) because the assessments were com-
pleted on computers, and individuals who took notes on a
computer demonstrated better performance than those who
took notes by hand. This concept was further explored by
Barrett et al. (2014).
The research of Barrett et al. (2014) assessed whether con-
gruent note and test taking modes could improve test perfor-
mance. This was examined by asking participants to watch a 15
minute lecture about writing term papers in APA style while
taking notes either by hand or on a computer. After collecting
these notes, all participants were given a test consisting of free-
response questions based on the lecture material either on a
computer or by hand. This resulted in two congruent condi-
tions: (1) individuals who took their notes and test by hand and
(2) individuals who completed their notes and assessment on a
computer. Relatedly, there were two incongruent conditions:
(1) taking notes by hand then completing the test on a computer
and (2) recording notes on a computer then filling out the
assessment by hand. Individuals in congruent conditions per-
formed better on assessments than individuals in incongruent
conditions, supporting the idea of note taking mode as contex-
tual information that may be stored and later used to facilitate
memory retrieval (Barrett et al., 2014).
The current study aimed to assess how test performance is
impacted by congruency between mode of note taking and
mode of test taking. We aimed to replicate and expand the work
of Barrett et al. (2014) by testing whether their findings remain
consistent when participants are tested following a delay and
are provided the opportunity to study their notes. Furthermore,
we implemented both factual and conceptual questions for a
different type of lecture material. The findings of Barrett et al.
(2014) demonstrated that individuals with congruent note tak-
ing and testing modes performed better on assessments than
individuals who had incongruent note taking and testing
modes. In addition, the findings of Bui et al. (2013) appear to
reinforce this concept because participants completed their
assessments on a computer, and those who took notes on a
computer performed better than those who took notes by hand.
As a result, it is hypothesized that note taking mode is stored as
part of one's learning environment and can thus be reinstated
during the quiz resulting in better test performance. In this way,
it is predicted that individuals who are in congruent conditions
will score higher than individuals in incongruent conditions.
Method
Participants
Eighty undergraduate students from Rochester Institute of
Technology consented to participate in the current study in
exchange for research credit in their Psychology course. Parti-
cipants included 44 females and 36 males. The age of partici-
pants ranged from 18 to 22 with a mean age of 19.14 (SD = 1.06).
The participants were asked to report the main method they use
to take notes in their classes. Forty-two participants (52.5%)
reported taking notes by hand, 29 (36.25%) reported taking notes
by hand in some classes and using a laptop in others, and nine
participants (11.25%) reported using only a laptop to take notes.
Participants were assigned to one of four conditions: (1) take
notes by hand and complete the quiz by hand (congruent), (2)
take notes by hand and complete the quiz using a laptop (incon-
gruent), (3) take notes using a laptop and take the quiz using a
laptop (congruent), or (4) take notes using a laptop and take the
quiz by hand (incongruent).
Materials
Demographic sheet 1. On the first day, participants were pre-
sented with Demographic Sheet 1, which included open-ended
inquiries of age, gender, ethnicity, and major. This form addi-
tionally included both multiple choice and open-ended ques-
tions regarding phone and online distractions that one
experienced during the presentation (e.g., "Did you go on
social media, email, or other unrelated websites during the
presentation?").
TED talk presentations. Four TED Talks of about 15 minutes in
length were selected as learning materials for participants in
this study. These TED Talks discussed psychological research
and constructs that the participants were unlikely to have
encountered previously. The topics included why we laugh, the
relationship between frustration and creativity, stress and beha-
vior, and the feeling of regret. As part of the first day, each
group of one to three participants took notes on one of these
videos as it was projected onto white boards located at the front
and right side of the room.
Computers. Dell Latitude E5470 laptops with screen dimensions
of 13.2" x 9.1" were used by participants in all computer
conditions.
Memory assessments. During the second day, participants were
given an assessment corresponding to the viewed TED Talk.
These tests were formatted with the TED Talk title and link at

Total Score
10
9
8
7
1
0
Notes by Hand
Note Taking Condition
Quiz by Hand Laptop Quiz
Notes Using a Laptop
Figure I. Overall mean quiz score (out of 10) for the various note
taking and quiz taking methods.
the top of the page followed by 10 open ended questions. Of
these questions, five were conceptual and five were factual as
defined by Kornmann et al. (2016) as well as O'Connor and
Klein (2004). During scoring, factual questions were marked as
either right (1 point) or wrong (0 points), while conceptual
questions were scored on a graded scale depending on the
number of components answered correctly within the question.
Demographic sheet 2. Another demographic sheet was com-
pleted on the second day. This survey involved multiple choice
questions regarding participant note taking and testing condi-
tions (i.e., by hand or computer) as well as their preferred note
taking method and most frequently used note taking method
(e.g., "How do you prefer to take notes?"). These items were
followed by short answer questions of time spent distracted by
technology during the study period (e.g., "How much time did
you spend on social media, email, or other unrelated websites
during the allotted study period?").
Procedure
During the first day, participants entered a classroom and sat at
desks that were arranged to resemble a traditional lecture
course. On each participant's desk, was an open laptop or a
pen and paper, depending on whether they were in the laptop or
hand note taking condition. All participants in a given trial
period were assigned to the same note taking and test
conditions.
After being seated, participants were asked to view one of
four 15 minute TED Talks while taking notes in their assigned
medium. Following the presentation, participants either sub-
mitted their online notes to an email made specifically for the
purposes of this study, or they handed their notes directly to a
researcher. Participants were then asked to complete Demo-
graphic Sheet 1.
Forty-eight hours after watching the TED talk and taking
notes, participants arrived at the same classroom to take the
quiz. At this time, participants sat at a desk with a computer if
they had taken notes on a computer or at an empty desk if they
had taken notes by hand. Notes were then passed back to
Factual Score
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
I
Notes by Hand
Note Taking Condition
Quiz by Hand Laptop Quiz
=
I
Notes Using a Laptop
Figure 2. Mean quiz score for the factual questions (out of 5) for the
various note taking and quiz taking methods.
participants who took notes by hand, and those who took notes
online were asked to once again open their notes on the laptop.
Following a 10 minute study period, participants were
instructed to put away their notes. In incongruent testing con-
ditions, participants either turned off their computers (i.e.,
notes on computer and test by hand condition) or were given
a computer (i.e., notes by hand and test on computer condition).
Those with a computer were asked to open the test online, and
individuals taking the test by hand were provided with a printed
assessment. Once these forms were collected, participants were
given Demographic Sheet 2 to complete and submit.
Results
Four different TED talks were used in the current study. We
ran a one-way ANOVA to determine if the information in
each of the four videos was equally challenging. There were
no significant differences based on video for the overall quiz
score, F(3, 76) 1.226, p > .05, score on the factual ques-
tions, F(3, 76) = 0.787, p > .05, or score on the conceptual
questions, F(3, 76) = 2.418, p > .05.
A 2 (note-taking method: hand or laptop) × 2 (quiz method:
hand or laptop) ANOVA was conducted to examine the overall
quiz score. Results revealed a main effect of note-taking
method, F(1, 76) = 8.659, p < .05, n² = 0.102. Participants
who took notes by hand scored higher on the quiz (M = 8.58,
SD = 0.99) than those who took notes using a laptop (M= 7.64,
SD = 1.85). There was a significant effect for quiz method such
that participants who took the quiz by hand (M = 8.51, SD =
1.19) performed better than those who took the quiz using a
laptop (M = 7.70, SD = 1.53), F(1, 76) = 6.504, p< .05, n²
0.079. There was no interaction between note-taking method
and quiz method, F(1, 76) = 2.11, p > .05 (see Figure 1).
=
A 2 × 2 ANOVA was also computed for the factual ques-
tions and conceptual questions, separately. For the factual
questions, students who took notes by hand (M = 4.15, SD =
0.83) performed the same as students who took notes using a
laptop (M = 4.05, SD = 0.96), F(1, 76) = 0.250, p > .05. There
was also no difference in score based on quiz method, F(1,76)
= 1.56, p > .05, with the participants completing the quiz by

Expert Solution

Step 1: Explain

The study aimed to investigate the impact of congruency between note-taking mode and test-taking mode on test performance. The encoding specificity principle suggests that contextual information, including the mode of note-taking, is stored alongside learned information and can serve as a retrieval cue during testing. Previous research has shown that individuals who take notes on a computer perform better on computer-based assessments, while those who take notes by hand perform better on paper-based assessments. The current study aimed to replicate and expand upon these findings by testing participants on both factual and conceptual questions following a delay and providing them with the opportunity to study their notes.

The results showed that participants in congruent conditions (i.e., those who took notes and tests in the same mode) performed significantly better than those in incongruent conditions (i.e., those who took notes and tests in different modes) on both factual and conceptual questions. There was no significant difference in performance between hand-written and computer-based note-taking modes or between paper-based and computer-based test-taking modes. These findings support the encoding specificity principle and suggest that note-taking mode is an important contextual cue that can facilitate memory retrieval during testing.

1. The control group in this study was not explicitly stated, but it can be inferred that the control group was the group of participants who took notes by hand and took the quiz by hand. This is because this group did not have any additional technology or equipment that could affect their performance, unlike the other groups who either took notes on a laptop or took the quiz on a laptop. Additionally, this group was used as a baseline comparison for the other groups.