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Chapter 11 1. The nuclear family refers to a family unit consisting of parents and their children living together in a single household. In contrast, the extended family includes not only parents and children but also other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. The prevalence of nuclear or extended families varies across societies. In traditional or agrarian societies, extended families are more common. This is often seen in collectivist cultures where strong interdependence among family members is emphasized. In these societies, the extended family provides economic support, shared resources, and a sense of community. In contrast, industrialized societies tend to favor nuclear families. The shift towards nuclear families is associated with the mobility required for employment in urban and industrial settings. The Industrial Revolution led to increased job opportunities in urban areas, prompting individuals to move away from their extended families to pursue employment opportunities. As a result, nuclear families became more practical and prevalent in industrialized societies. This transition is discussed by sociologist Talcott Parsons in his "functional fit" theory, where he argues that the nuclear family structure is better suited for the needs of an industrial society, allowing for greater flexibility and mobility in the workforce (Parsons et al). 2. Monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, and polyandry are different forms of marital systems found in various societies, each with distinct social and cultural implications. Monogamy is a marital system where an individual has only one spouse at a time. It is the most common form of marital arrangement globally and is prevalent in industrialized and Western societies (Koktvedgaard Zeitzen, 2008). Monogamous relationships are often associated with individualism, emphasizing the importance of exclusive, committed

partnerships. Polygamy, on the other hand, involves individuals having multiple spouses simultaneously. Polygamy is further divided into polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is a form of polygamy where a man has multiple wives, and it tends to be found in societies with patriarchal structures, often linked to economic factors or the desire for larger families. Polyandry is a less common form of polygamy where a woman has multiple husbands. This practice is rare and is observed in specific cultural contexts, such as certain Tibetan and Nepalese communities (Koktvedgaard Zeitzen, 2008). The prevalence of these marital systems is often tied to cultural, religious, and economic factors. For example, polygyny may be more common in societies where there is a high demand for labor, and having multiple wives can contribute to larger family units. The diversity in family and marital structures reflects the complex interplay between cultural, economic, and historical factors in different societies (Koktvedgaard Zeitzen, 2008). Chapter 12 3. Cultural capital, a concept introduced by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, refers to the non-financial social assets that contribute to an individual's social mobility and success in society. It encompasses cultural knowledge, skills, education, and other forms of cultural awareness that are valued in a particular social context. In the sociological analysis of education, cultural capital plays a crucial role in understanding educational inequalities. Bourdieu argued that individuals from higher social classes possess more cultural capital, giving them an advantage in educational systems that often reflect the values of the dominant class. This advantage can manifest in better academic performance, access to educational resources, and a more positive reception from educators. For example, a study by Lareau (2003) explored how different parenting styles and involvement in

extracurricular activities contribute to the development of cultural capital, affecting educational outcomes. Recognizing cultural capital is essential for addressing issues of educational inequality and developing policies that promote equal opportunities for all students. 4. The functionalist perspective, as outlined by Emile Durkheim, views religion as a social institution that serves various functions in societies(Durkheim, 1912/1995). One major function is the establishment and reinforcement of social cohesion and integration. Durkheim argued that religious rituals and beliefs provide a sense of shared values and norms, fostering a collective conscience that binds individuals together (Durkheim, 1912/1995). Religion helps maintain social order and solidarity by offering a moral framework and shared identity. Another key function is the provision of a sense of purpose and meaning to individuals. Religion often addresses existential questions and provides answers regarding the meaning of life, death, and human existence. This existential function contributes to individual well-being and societal stability. Additionally, religion plays a role in social control by establishing moral boundaries and norms. It can influence behavior by promoting ethical guidelines and discouraging deviant actions, contributing to the maintenance of social order (Durkheim, 1912/1995). Chapter 13 5. Max Weber identified three types of authority that characterize different social structures. First is traditional authority, rooted in long-established customs and traditions. In this form, authority is passed down from generation to generation. An example is a monarchy where leadership is determined by hereditary succession (Weber, 1947). The second type is charismatic authority, based on the personal qualities and magnetism of an individual.

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Charismatic leaders inspire followers through their extraordinary traits and abilities. An example is Mahatma Gandhi, whose leadership during India’s struggle for independence was based on his charismatic appeal (Weber, 1947). The third type is legal-rational authority, grounded in a system of rules and laws. It is the most common form in modern societies, with authority derived from adherence to established procedures and regulations. An example is a democratically elected government where leaders gain authority through legal processes and institutions (Weber, 1947). 6. Preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial economies represent distinct stages in economic development. Preindustrial economies are characterized by agrarian and manual labor, with limited technology and mechanization. Production is often small- scale, and economic activities are primarily agrarian (Rosto, 1960). Industrial economies mark the transition to mechanized production and manufacturing, driven by technological advancements and the growth of factories (Rosto, 1960). This era witnesses urbanization and a shift from agrarian to industrial labor. Postindustrial economies, also known as information or knowledge economies, rely on technology, information, and services. The emphasis is on intellectual and creative activities, with a decrease in traditional manufacturing. The service sector, including finance, education, and technology, becomes dominant (Bell, 1973). Chapter 14 7. The sick role, a concept developed by Talcott Parsons within the functionalist perspective, refers to a set of societal expectations regarding the behavior of individuals who are ill (Parsons, 1951). According to Parsons, when an individual is sick, they are exempted from normal social roles and responsibilities. However, this exemption comes

with certain expectations. Sick individuals are expected to seek professional help, cooperate with medical experts, and strive to get well to resume their normal roles in society. Parsons identified two key rights associated with the sick role: the right to be exempt from normal responsibilities and the right to be taken care of by others. However, these rights are contingent on the individual's willingness to conform to the norms of seeking medical attention and attempting to regain health. The sick role is seen as a mechanism for maintaining social order and cohesion. It reinforces the importance of health and the role of the medical profession in restoring individuals to their productive roles within society (Parsons, 1951). 8. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), signed into law by President Barack Obama in 2010, signifies a comprehensive restructuring of the U.S. healthcare system. Among its pivotal provisions, the ACA introduced an Individual Mandate, compelling most Americans to obtain health insurance coverage through their employer, government programs, or individual plans. This mandate was designed to augment the number of insured individuals, subsequently alleviating the strain on emergency healthcare services (Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, 2010). Additionally, the ACA established health Insurance Marketplaces, offering a platform for individuals and small businesses to compare and purchase insurance plans, fostering competition, and enhancing accessibility. Further, the act addressed the issue of inadequate coverage for low-income individuals and families by expanding Medicaid eligibility. Notably, it also brought about significant changes by prohibiting insurance companies from denying coverage or imposing higher premiums based on pre-existing conditions, thereby ensuring access to insurance for those with health issues. Furthermore, the ACA extended

coverage for young adults by allowing them to stay on their parents' insurance plans until the age of 26, mitigating the challenge of uninsured young adults in the healthcare landscape. This multifaceted approach aimed to improve overall access, affordability, and quality of healthcare across the nation (Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, 2010) References Bell, D. (1973). The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. Basic Books. Koktvedgaard Zeitzen, M. (2008). Polygamy: A Cross-Cultural Analysis . Berg. Parsons, T. (1951). The Social System. Free Press. Parsons, T., Bales, R. F., Olds, J., Zelditch, M., & Slater, P. E. (n.d.). California State University, Northridge . https://www.csun.edu. https://www.csun.edu/~snk1966/T.%20Parsons%20The %20American%20Family.pdf Originally published 1955 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , Pub. L. No. 111-148, 124 Stat. 119 (2010). Rostow, W. W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge University Press.

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