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Potohar College of Science Kalar Syedan, Rawalpindi *

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Sociology

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Nov 24, 2024

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Question 1 It would be the total number of peptic ulcer cases divided by the total population. From the data, we have 150 cases of peptic ulcer (100 + 50) out of 300 people (150 + 150). The prevalence would be 150/300 = 0.5 or 50%. Question 2 The prevalence ratio of PUD by weekly beer consumption (high vs. low) is 2:1 . Question 3 The findings suggest a higher prevalence of PUD among individuals who consume higher amounts of beer weekly than those who consume lower amounts weekly. Question 4 No, based on this data alone, it is impossible to draw a valid conclusion as to whether beer consumption increases the risk of peptic ulcers. This is because the data is from a cross-sectional study, which can show associations but cannot establish causality. Further studies, such as longitudinal or experimental studies, would be needed to determine causality. Question 5: Colon Cancer (Yes) Colon Cancer (No) Total GME (Yes) 58 20 78 GME (No) 174 164 338 Total 232 184 416 Question 6: The study design used in this scenario is a case-control study. Question 7: The appropriate measure of association for this case-control study is the odds ratio (OR). Question 8: The odds ratio (OR) is calculated as (ad/bc) = (58×164) / (20×174) = 3.34. Interpreting this value, the odds of being a grilled meat eater among colon cancer patients are 3.34 times higher than the odds of being a grilled meat eater among those without colon cancer. Question 9:

Investigators chose four patients without colon cancer for every colon cancer patient identified to increase the statistical power of the study. By selecting multiple control subjects for each case, the study can better account for potential confounding variables and increase the reliability of the results. Having a larger control group enhances the precision of the estimates and allows for a more accurate assessment of the association between grilled meat eating and colon cancer. Additionally, it provides a better basis for comparison, making the results more robust and reliable. Question 10: HIV-Positive (Yes) HIV-Negative (No) Total Circumcised (Yes) 4 7 11 Not Circumcised (No) 8 5 13 Total 12 12 24 Question 11: The study design used in this scenario is a matched case-control study. The cases (HIV-positive individuals) and controls (HIV-negative individuals) were matched by age and race. Question 12: The appropriate measure of association for a matched case-control study is the odds ratio (OR). Question 13: To calculate the odds ratio, we use the formula (ad/bc) = (4×5) / (8×7) = 0.357. Interpreting this value, the odds of being circumcised among HIV-positive men are 0.357 times the odds of being circumcised among HIV-negative men. In other words, HIV-positive men in this study were less likely to be circumcised than HIV-negative men. Question 14 Association between CHD death rates and alcohol consumption: Studies have shown that alcohol intake trajectories differ in their associations with biomarkers of cardiovascular functioning1. Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption has been reported to be cardio-protective among apparently healthy individuals2. However, inconsistently moderate drinkers had a significantly greater risk of incident CHD than consistently moderate drinkers1. Question 15

Criticism of the study: The study was criticized for potential bias inherent to observational studies. There could also have been residual confounding due to unmeasured variables such as diet. Question 16 It is likely a case-control study. Question 17 I identified this as a case-control study because this type of study is commonly used to evaluate the relationship between a certain outcome (in this case, motor vehicle crashes) and exposure to a certain factor (in this case, antidepressant use). In a case-control study, researchers identify individuals who have experienced the outcome of interest (the cases) and those who have not (the controls). Question 19: The study design used in this scenario is a nested case-control study. In this design, cases (men who developed prostate cancer) are identified from the larger cohort, and controls are sampled from the same cohort matched to the cases to investigate the exposure distribution in the population that produced the cases. Question 20: In a nested case-control study, the odds ratio (OR) is the appropriate measure of association. However, the necessary data to calculate the odds ratio must be provided in the excerpt. The odds ratio would be calculated based on the exposure status of cases (men who developed PCa) compared to controls (sampled from the cohort) regarding past exposure to organophosphate insecticides. It's possible to calculate the odds ratio with specific data on the exposure status of cases and controls.

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