THEO STUDY GUIDES

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THEO STUDY GUIDES Lesson 1: The Patristic Period and Biblical Passages I. Introduction to the Patristic Period initial centuries of the Christian tradition characterized by the emergence of key figures known as the "fathers" (patres) of the church who played pivotal roles in shaping Christianity as a religious, social, and intellectual force. Marked by the consolidation of Christian identity, theology, and organization. Patristic studies remain relevant in contemporary scholarship for several reasons: Understanding Historical Christianity, interpretation of scriptures, etc. within the past 2 centuries, there was a blossoming of patristic studies (esp. if you consider the emergence of new study tools like in archeology, epigraphy and papyrology, iconography and so on). why? - Enlightenment spirit of criticism, particularly prominent in eighteenth-century Germany, prompted an assessment of how Christianity had evolved from its original features. Lessing and Harnack critiqued the dogma and looked at how contemporary theo differed from the ideas of the early church fathers, especially regarding the "rule of faith.". looked at extent to which the core beliefs and doctrinal principles of early Christianity, as encapsulated in the Rule of Faith, were still upheld and relevant in their own theological context. - emergence of historical consciousness: Hegel and Bauer in understanding Christianity in its historical context to be able to understand the present. the fact that the early church fathers lived in close temporal proximity to the events and figures central to the origins of Christianity lends the writings of the early church fathers a unique authenticity in understanding Christianity that predates Eurocentric cultural perspectives. II. Recent Trends in Patristic Research 1. Christianity is rooted in rooted in Semitic and Indo-European cultures, but you can find expression in patristic writings that merge Semitic and Indo-European streams w/influences from Persia/Iran and possibly India, and then after 5th century, reflect heritage of "barbarians" such as Celts, Germans, and Franks 2. broader engagement with the history of religions. While previously focused on Christian origins and Judaism, contemporary scholars recognize the incorporation of indigenous Near Eastern and Mediterranean elements in patristic literature, offering insights into the cultural landscape of the late Roman Empire and Europe's birthplace. 3. direct, comprehensive engagement with primary sources, facilitated by new discoveries and editions. Scholars now work extensively with primary sources rather than relying on second-hand presentations 4. contemporary patrologists tend to avoid pursuing apologetic interests and often work within secular institutions. Their contributions are evaluated based on scholarly value rather than their utility to interest groups III. Biblical Passages Overview  Overview of Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke Matthew : for a Jewish audience, frequently references Old Testament and Jewish religious practices. emphasizes Jesus as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies and promised Messiah of Israel. highlights Jesus' teachings on righteousness, kingdom of heaven, ethical living. structured around 5 discourses. - Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7): includes Beatitudes (blessings), teachings on salt and light, fulfillment of the Law, instructions on prayer, fasting, and almsgiving.

- Missionary Discourse (Matthew 10): Jesus commissions his 12 disciples on a missionary journey to proclaim kingdom of God, heal the sick, and cast out demons. - Parabolic Discourse (Matthew 13): series of parables that Jesus uses to teach about the kingdom of heaven. - Discourse on the Church (Matthew 18): Jesus addresses the nature and importance of the Christian community, emphasizing humility, forgiveness, reconciliation, and handling of sin within the church. power of prayer and the necessity of forgiveness. - Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24-25): on the Mount of Olives, Jesus speaks to disciples about the signs of the end times, destruction of Jerusalem, and second coming. Mark: for a broader audience, including Gentile Christians. Emphasizes Jesus' actions more than teachings. Jesus is powerful and compassionate, challenges conventional religious authority. focuses on His ministry in Galilee, his journey to Jerusalem, resurrection. known for its "Messianic Secret," where Jesus commands people not to reveal he’s the Messiah. Luke: addressed to Theophilus, likely a Gentile convert. More universal, emphasizes the inclusion of Gentiles in God's salvation. highlights Jesus' compassion for the marginalized and oppressed, emphasizes themes of forgiveness, repentance, and the universality of salvation. detailed account of Jesus' birth and early life, including the Annunciation, the Nativity, and the infancy narratives.  Selected Parables and Passages Explained o Parable of the Hidden Treasure and the Pearl (Matthew): kingdom of heaven is like a hidden treasure found in a field or a valuable pearl discovered by a merchant. The person who finds the treasure in the field sells everything he owns to buy the field. “Let go of worldly possessions or pursuits in exchange for the eternal riches and blessings of God's kingdom.” o Parable of the Wedding Banquet (Matthew). Is about the rejection of Jesus by the religious leaders of his time (the invited guests) and the inclusion of Gentiles and sinners in the kingdom of God, and the consequences of rejecting God's invitation and failing to live according to His standards. o Parable of the Growing Seed (Mark): role of God in bringing about the growth and fruition of His kingdom, often beyond human understanding or control IV. Christianity Overview Christianity is the faith based on Jesus Christ’s: life, teachings, death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven. The Christian Bible contains Old Testament (OT) + apocrypha/ deutero-canonical books, New Testament (NT): 27 books, including 4 Gospels, Gospels were written some 40-50 years after Jesus’s death Structure of the Christian Bible: Old and New Testaments  Old focuses on the history, laws, and religious practices of ancient Israel, while the New centers on the life, teachings, and impact of Jesus Christ and the early Christian Church.  Old lays the foundation for the coming of the Messiah, while the New Testament reveals Jesus as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies.  Old emphasizes the covenant between God and Israel, while the New emphasizes the new covenant established through Jesus Christ for all humanity.  Old primarily uses Hebrew as its language, while the New was written in Greek.

 Old is considered sacred scripture in both Judaism and Christianity, while the New Testament is uniquely Christian scripture. Methods of Biblical Interpretation - Historical critical method: looking at historical context, cultural background, literary genre, and original languages - Literal method: interprets biblical texts at face value, giving primary consideration to the plain meaning of texts (looking at grammar) - Allegorical method: by finding symbolic or allegorical meanings beyond the literal sense of the words. Looking for deeper spiritual or moral truths encoded within the narrative or imagery - Mystical method: emphasizes personal spiritual experiences, symbolic interpretations, and the search for hidden or esoteric meanings within the text. - Moral method: focus on deriving moral or ethical principles for guiding human behavior and conduct. seeks to apply the teachings and examples found in Scripture to contemporary ethical dilemmas and moral decision-making. The most widespread with scholars today is the historical critical method which looks at: - historical context : looking at socio-political, cultural, and religious milieu in which texts were written. Seeing how events, customs, beliefs, and practices influenced it. - intended audience of the author : For example, an author writing to a Jewish audience may employ different literary styles, motifs, and theological emphases compared to an author addressing a Greco-Roman audience (cus jews and the Old Testament). - desired effect of the author : looking at author's literary, theological, and rhetorical strategies employed to communicate a particular message or theme. V. Analysis of Gospel Narratives  Understanding Gospel Authors and Their Audiences Gospel of John (Jn): contains distinctive theological themes, like Jesus' "I am" sayings, emphasis on belief, faith, theme of eternal life, and portrayal of Jesus as revealer of God's glory - Jesus is the eternal Son and Logos (or Word) of God, the incarnate God on Earth. - There are also apocryphal (secret) gospels attributed to Thomas, Peter, Mary Magdalene, Philip, and even Judas – most of them come from Gnostic circles and are later. - By apocryphal, it can mean in sense that they weren't prominent in early church The evangelists, along with their symbols in iconography from the Book of Kells, are: - Matthew, symbolized by a man, to represent the human nature of Christ. presents Jesus as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies and the promised Messiah of Israel. - Mark, symbolized by a lion, to represent Christ as king. begins with the proclamation of John the Baptist in the wilderness, emphasizing Jesus' divine authority and role as the victorious king who conquers sin and death through his death and resurrection. - Luke, symbolized by a bull or a calf, to represent Christ as sacrifice and as priest. - John, symbolized by an eagle, to represent the Christ as God. VI. Life and Teachings of Jesus  Major Events: Birth, Episode at Age 12, Public Ministry:

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o at 12, gospel of Luke, finding in the temple: Jesus & fam, went to Jerusalem, celebrate Passover, when family leave, Jesus stayed back. When noticed, went back, found him in the Temple, engaged in discussions with the teachers and scribes, astonishing them with his understanding and answers to their questions. o At 30, beginning of public ministry, started with his baptism by John, then 40 days in desert, fasted and tempted. Then, preaching message of kingdom of God, performing miracles, teaching parables, and calling disciples to follow him.  Role of John the Baptist and Jesus' Baptism: was Jesus's forerunner and he baptized people for the forgiveness of their sins. Jesus’s baptism by John has been seen as o Consecration to God as the Messiah. o John publicly announcing that the Messiah has arrived. o Jesus identifies himself with sinful humanity.  Miracles are seen as Signs of the Kingdom of God. A glimpse into the Kingdome of God  Jesus' Crucifixion, Death, and Resurrection: when he came back to Jerusalem, had last supper, got betrayed for 30$, a trial at Caiaphas (high priest) was asked if he messiah, confirmed, declared blasphemy against God, roman authorities want crucifixion, dead. Then woman visit tomb, women’s presence witnesses to the historical truth in claims of Jesus’s resurrection. Lesson 2: Christianity in the Roman World Roman Empire and Pax Romana “period of peace” Roman religions was less about morality than keeping up a good balanced relationship with the gods. Augustus implemented comprehensive administrative reforms that centralized power, brought the military and Senate under control, and rectified frontiers to ensure defensibility. also, the construction of seaways and a network of paved roads facilitated communication and cohesion throughout the empire. Despite occasional tensions, particularly in frontier provinces like Syria-Palestine, empire experienced relative stability, with no major civil wars after 69 C.E. The city of Rome had a huge population, but often overcrowded and unsanitary, which led to frequent outbreaks of diseases, with a huge wealth gap, heavily reliant on slave labor, with patronage and clientage being important for protection and well-being. Material prosperity was increasing among the upper class, and city life was expanding, leading to spread of Greco- Roman culture in provinces. (gverned by urban nobility). At one point, there were way too little people, invited barbarians in, still considered too few, decline in birth, still some emperor thought was too much.  Roman Religion and Beliefs Astrology - horoscopes were avidly compiled. Not Zeus, but rather Chance, Fate, or Fortune (Greek, Tyche) was most important god. Apostle Paul dismissed Roman religion (known as paganism) when writing: "Now that you have come to know God...how can you turn back again

to the weak and beggarly elemental spirits? How can you want to be enslaved to them again?" (Gal 4:9) “Elemental spirits” are demonic beings or forces to whom Paul believed humans had been enslaved before their conversion to Christianity. Older view of the Roman Empire: an unprogressive society ruled by impersonal forces whose nature was not understood and which was morally degenerate. In the second century, Christians were starting to become noticeable in the Roman world, but still small group. Romans had a diverse religious landscape, embracing various beliefs alongside astrology and magic. They worshipped a wide array of gods, both ancient and newly introduced, with a pantheon that included Roman and Greek deities. Augustus revitalized the state religion, emphasizing Apollo and Artemis, and introduced the "emperor cult," although its religious significance was weak. emphasized worship of the emperor alongside traditional Roman deities. Following Augustus' reign, Oriental cults gained popularity throughout the empire, offering solutions to unmet spiritual needs, particularly concerning the afterlife and salvation. alongside the rise of monarchical governance, there was a noticeable shift toward monotheistic beliefs. Many Romans, especially the educated elite, grew skeptical of official ceremonies and popular beliefs, gravitating toward a belief in Providence, more efficient. jews were allowed to practice their laws and enjoyed certain privileges, yet their monotheism and reluctance to engage in public life caused misunderstanding. Despite this, they maintained a strong identity. Early Christian communities initially shared the Jewish experience but soon faced persecution and exclusion from public rituals. They were labeled as "atheists" and subjected to rumors due to their association with Jesus. In terms of morality, the linkage of an ethical code with religious faith was practically unknown (at was at the discretion of whatever god). although some pagan religions did develop high standards of morality (why Christianity wanted to associate w em). Soon true piety came to be seen as residing in faith and good conduct, over above mere practices Opposition to new religious movements from :  previously organized and established religions like Judaism. Christianism was so new, seen as a superstition. A cult.  governments struggling to balance religious freedom with public safety. Examples from the contemporary era:  illegal businesses or money extortionists posing as religious groups.  neo-fascists disguised as medieval cults but promoting white supremacy and hatred of immigrants.  concern that NRMs may cause psychological damage, especially to vulnerable young people.  loneliness and alienation from mainstream culture Christian Movement in 100 C.E.

Christians gradually shifted towards teaching virtuous living suited for a civilized society. Facing harassment in Palestine, Christians spread throughout Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, and Rome, where they faced sporadic persecution. Unlike the predominantly rural population, Christians were primarily found in urban centers, initially among artisans and tradesmen, but eventually gaining converts from various social strata, including some wealthy patrons. During the first half of the second century, the first Christian writers (apostolic fathers), emerged. They provided insight into church order, practices, language, and theology beyond the New Testament writings. Their emphasis on obedience to leaders, warning against heresies, and recognition of certain writings as scripture helped shape normative Christianity. The process of establishing the New Testament canon began during this time (100 CE), prompted by controversies, and completed by the fourth century. Other Christian writings, labeled as apocryphal, were not included in the canon but still provide valuable insight into early Christian beliefs and practices. Perspectives on Christians  Roman Perspective on Christians Unlike the Jews, Christians were seen as enigmatic figures who challenged traditional Roman values and practices. They formed what appeared to be an "alternative society" that diverged from the Roman way of life, causing discomfort and suspicion among Roman officials and the general populace. Didn’t know how to handle em, Christians often faced persecution and the death penalty under Roman rule. Intellectuals showed disdain, viewing their beliefs as irrational and their practices as disrespectful, were accused of disregarding civic duties, rejecting ancestral customs, and fostering a sense of contempt for societal norms. They were labeled as practitioners of a "deadly superstition.  Jewish Perspective on Christians Evolved over time, reflecting a gradual separation between the two, Initially, Christians were viewed as fellow Jews who had strayed from traditional beliefs by following Jesus. However, as Christian traditions began to diverge from Pharisaic Judaism and adopt anti-Jewish sentiments, tensions between em intensified. bitterness as Christian teachings, (like in John's gospel), took on an anti-Jewish tone. They once worshipped w Jews in synagogues, now proclaimed themselves as "true Israel," leading to expulsion and denouncement from Jewish communities. LESSON 3 I. Transition from Ancient Hebrew Traditions to Rabbinic Judaism  Establishment of First Temple Judaism: marked by the construction of Solomon's Temple, leading to periods of foreign domination, exile, and eventual return.  Periods of foreign domination, exile, and return: The Second Temple era saw various foreign dominations, including the Hasmonean rule, Roman occupation, and the catastrophic Jewish revolt.  Despite that, emergence of Rabbinic Judaism post-destruction of Second Temple III. Evolution of Jewish and Christian Literature

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Early Christians claimed lineage to Hebrew history and scriptures, fostering a sense of shared identity with Jews despite tensions with Rabbinic Judaism. The Hebrew Bible, as translated in the Septuagint, served as the foundational text for both Jews and Christians. Additional texts, including apocryphal and pseudepigraphal writings, influenced both traditions. The discovery of the Qumran scrolls shed light on alternative Jewish communities, reflecting messianic and apocalyptic aspirations. Hellenistic Jewish authors like Philo and Josephus offered insight into the context of Christianity's rise. Post-first century Jewish literature, such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and Midrashim, solidified Rabbinic Judaism's foundation, diverging from Christian theological development. IV. Significant Movements in Second Temple Judaism  Messianism: rooted in ancient Jewish tradition, envisioned a redeemer who would restore the monarchy, defeat the wicked, and free the land from foreign rule.  Apocalypticism: intensified around the turn of the era, anticipated the immediate arrival of the messiah while describing vivid scenarios of divine intervention and the resurrection of the dead. Influence on early Christian theology and figures like John the Baptist and Jesus: Despite suspicions of subversion, the expectation of divine intervention reflected both national frustrations and hopes for God's decisive intervention in history. Figures like John the Baptist and Jesus drew upon these beliefs in their preaching, shaping early Christian theology. Paul's theological evolution from imminent expectation to accommodation with worldly existence illustrates the impact of apocalypticism. Impact of Jewish revolts and theological adaptations: The Jewish revolts discredited messianic- political movements and extreme forms of apocalypticism. By the third century, the Mishnah began to replace remnants of messianism, emphasizing Torah observance as a prerequisite for the messiah's arrival. V. Geographic and Sociocultural Diversity in Judaism  Distinction between Palestinian Judaism and Diaspora Judaism Palestinian Judaism , led by the rabbis after 70 CE, focused on biblical interpretation through Midrash, emphasizing legal discussions and ethical teachings in Aramaic and Hebrew. By the end of the first century, approximately 2 million Jews resided in Palestine. Diaspora Judaism adapted the biblical tradition for Greek-speaking Jews, displaying a greater assimilation to Greek culture. Second Temple Judaism witnessed Jewish prosperity and successful proselytism, with Judaism becoming an attractive alternative religion. However, after 120 CE, the Greek-speaking Diaspora declined, while Babylonian Jews embraced Aramaic and Rabbinic Judaism thrived. Hellenistic Christianity absorbed many Gentiles and Hellenized Jews, contributing to the decline of Hellenistic Judaism. Despite differences, both Rabbinic and Diaspora Judaism upheld the primacy of Mosaic law while undergoing varying degrees of assimilation to Greek culture. VI. Emergence of Jewish Groups and Sects. Jewish groups around year 0.

primarily distinguished by their interpretation of Judaism in relation to the political climate of Greco-Roman Palestine. Judaism was not a unified religion; these are an example. Sadducees  priests and wealthy businessmen; aligned with the high priestly office and the aristocracy.  conservatives in outlook of life, who provided a literal interpretation of the Bible.  rejected oral law and traditions: favored literal interpretations of scripture and denied Pharisaic teachings.  denial of an afterlife and the coming of a messiah  contributing to the shift from Temple-centric Judaism to Torah-centric Judaism Pharisees: tend to be presented in New Testament as hypocritical people.  more liberal citizens of all classes  studied the applications of Torah to everyday life, to changing circumstances, giving rise to the schools of Shammai and Hillel  in 1st century. BCE - civil war between Sadducees and Pharisees  pious adherents to ancient Jewish traditions  As Hasmonean leaders became more Hellenized, the Pharisees distanced themselves politically and focused on religious leadership, eventually merging with the rabbis. Essenes  monastic community disgusted with what they considered a corrupted priesthood.  apocalyptic group who wrote The Dead Sea Scrolls (discovered in 1947)  some retreated to Qumran on the shore of the Dead Sea, considered they the chosen ones.  Were destroyed during the rebellion started by the zealots against the romans. Essenes joined forces with the zealots against romans. Dead-sea scroll is the expectation of the Essenes about the war at the end of word and the fact that they chose ones. The faithful remnants are seen as the son of light. The scroll is then about the apocalyptic world between the suns of light (those who remained faithful to the coven) and sons of darkness (those who betrayed covenant). This symbolism between light and dark goes back to the first Jewish temple, and developed in opposition to the Jewish occupations. According to war scroll, the sole purpose was to enable the septarian to rebuilt the temple in Jerusalem. In contrast, book of revelation discusses the heavenly Jerusalem (not a new temple). Zealots  militias who in 66 CE revolted against the Romans: advocated for militant resistance against foreign rule.  Roman general (later emperor) Vespasian and his son Titus suppressed the revolt and destroyed the Second Temple in the year 70 CE These groups shared a common history and experience but differed in their responses to frustrations under foreign rule, creating fertile ground for the development of Rabbinic Judaism and early Christianity VII. Exploration of Jewish-Christianity

The earliest Christians were predominantly ethnic Jews, forming communities such as the one in Jerusalem centered around the twelve apostles. The term "Nazarene" often referred to these initial Jewish believers in Jesus, who persisted in regions like Palestine and Syria until the fourth century. New Testament authors were primarily Jewish Christians, including figures like Paul. The distinction between Jewish and Gentile Christians became pronounced with the inclusion of Gentiles into the church, spearheaded by Paul. This integration led to debates regarding the observance of Jewish laws and customs. Some Jewish Christians advocated for adherence to Jewish practices alongside Christian beliefs, forming the group known as Jewish-Christianity. This group persisted into the second century, embodying a synthesis of Jewish observance and Christian faith. As Christianity increasingly embraced Gentile converts, tensions arose over the extent of Jewish observance within the faith. Judaizers, who sought to maintain Jewish practices among Christians, faced criticism and eventually dwindled in influence. The Ebionites, another sect within Jewish-Christianity, insisted on strict adherence to Mosaic law, leading to their eventual divergence from mainstream Christianity and classification as heretics. VIII. Shifts in Jewish-Christian Relations By the second century, efforts to dissociate Christianity from Judaism emerged, exemplified by figures like Marcion, who rejected Jewish scriptures and advocated for a Judaism-free Christianity. This represented a stark departure from Jewish-Christianity and sought to minimize Jewish influence within the church. Ultimately, Jewish-Christianity declined, giving way to broader Christian theological developments. Despite that, Jewish practice and ritual continued to captivate many Christians, while movements like Marcionism tried to cut Judaism entirely.  Christian writings after 70 AD began to reflect a growing antagonism towards Judaism. The Synoptic Gospels portrayed Jesus in confrontation with Jewish authorities and emphasized the rupture between Christianity and nationalist Jewish groups. By the end of the first century, anti-Christian polemics among Jews were already emerging, blaming Jews for Jesus’s death, IX. Influence of Jewish Scriptures and Interpretative Methods Christians regarded Jewish scriptures in Septuagint (LXX) version as their Bible, interpreting it as pointing towards the new era inaugurated by Jesus and his followers. New Testament writings extensively reference and cite passages from the Old Testament, demonstrating the foundational role of Jewish scriptures in Christianity. Early Christian scholars, such as Origen and Jerome, acknowledged their debt to Jewish exegetical methods and consulted Jewish rabbis in their work. Old Testament still used, as Christians drew inspiration from the history and narratives of ancient Israel, considering figures like patriarchs and prophets as models for Christian living. The Psalms, in particular, became a central aspect of Christian prayer and worship, with clergy and monks memorizing them extensively. The influence of Jewish methods of interpretation persisted within Christian schools of interpretation, notably in Alexandria and Antioch. The allegorical interpretation, popularized by Philo in Alexandria, found expression in the Alexandrian school's exegesis, which also developed a high Christology. In contrast, the Antiochene school emphasized the literal sense of scripture, drawing from Jewish haggadic literature and promoting a "low" Christology.

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X. Perceptions of God in Jewish Tradition  In early biblical narratives: burning bush, pillar of cloud/fire, smoking mountain.  In the prophets: visits by angelic messengers & inner voices  Rabbinical traditions: God's presence in the world is called Shekinah, which is a feminine quality representing God’s nurturing, motherly aspect. This is a non-anthropomorphic, transcendent presence. Sometimes Shekinah is depicted as a radiant, winged presence (Tanakh in Hebrew, “Old Testament” for Christians). Post-biblical evolving teachings and practices are collected in the Talmud - a great compendium of Jewish law and lore. Year 70 AD: Romans destroy the Jewish temple in Jerusalem and disperse the Jews throughout the world. Problem of Historicity: Scholars uncertain about the historical accuracy of the early biblical stories cus no other evidence exists. Tradition holds that Torah (Five Books of Moses) were revealed by God directly to Moses, who wrote them down. Scholars say Torah was an oral tradition reworked and redacted by later authors. The Final form of Torah around 430 BCE: created by Ezra the Scribe and Priest and his editorial team. Intent of later authors: interpreting the formation of Israel from a religious point of view as the results of God’s actions in human history. Similarities of biblical stories with Mesopotamian legends: creation, the Garden of Eden, the great flood, the tower of Babel. Abraham was born in Chaldean City of Ur, Mesopotamia, migrated to Haran, and then called by God to Canaan. shows an example of obedience to God’s commandments through circumcision as sign of the covenant with God, and how hes ready to sacrifice his son Isaac (from Sarah) upon request from God. Abraham’s son Ishmael and his mother (slave Hagar) are driven into the desert - Ishmael is an ancestor of the Arabs. Abraham is taught by God to be monotheistic . God was perceived as a ruler in relation to the people, like a parent to a child, or a sovereign to vassals, like a husband to a wife. Birth of Israel: Jacob, Isaac’s second son, receives the new name “Israel” after wrestling for a whole night with an angel of God. names are indicative of the person’s character, and a new name means a new character, in this case of one reborn at a higher level of spirituality. Israel - the one who struggled with God. Jacob is given the promise that many nations will be born from him, and then he had 12 sons and one daughter from his two wives. The 12 sons become heads of the twelve tribes of Israel. The First Temple of Jerusalem: King David established Jerusalem as the capital, Solomon builds a great Temple, burnt offerings of animals, grain and oil were made to God in the Temple. Solomon ended up an idol worshipper and womanizer. Division of Israel follows into the northern and southern kingdom (Israel and Judah). Then, Israel is conquered by Assyria - most Jews are sent into exile in Assyria, Judah is conquered by Babylonian King and the Temple is destroyed, which is seen as a divine punishment for Israel’s infidelity toward God. Then King Cyrus of Persia allows the Jews to return to the land of Israel and the temple gets rebuilt, Ezra, a priest and scribe, coordinates the redaction of the Torah, and Judaism becomes contaminated with foreign influences (Persian, Greek Parthian, Roman). Antiochus IV Epiphanes, a Hellenistic ruler of Syria, forces Greek ways upon the Jews, The Maccabean revolt rejects Antiochus IV’s

rule and manages to re-establish a Jewish independent kingdom Roman general Pompey conquers Israel. And in 70, temple gets destroyed again, so now, they had to rethink the religion. Rabbinic Judaism was One of the Movement that survived the Destruction of the Temple by the Romans brought some revisions (the other ones was followers of Jesus of Nazareth, Christians):  synagogues replaced temple.  rabbis replaced priests.  prayers replaced sacrifices. Emphases on the Book and literacy (not for women, however). Revelation was closed (with the completion of the Bible), but Interpretation (midrash), which led to the Mishnah (oral Torah) of the Bible has been encouraged in legal decisions (halakhah) non-legal teachings (haggadah) - folklore, historical knowledge, theological arguments, sermons, and mystical teachings.  Mishnah is divided into six sections: seeds, festivals, women, damages, holy things and purities. Mishna + rabbinic commentaries on it = The Talmud  The Jerusalem Talmud emphasizes continual study of the Torah as a spiritual practice.  The Babylonian Talmud the dominant version in theology and law  The Talmud continues to grow to this day. LESSON 4 1. Introduction to Hellenism and its Spread Hellenism refers to a global cultural influence that spread throughout the Mediterranean world, extending into Roman times. It started w/Alexander the great (356-323 BCE), was king of Macedonia (Southeastern Europe). He overthrew the Persian Empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Was educated by Aristotle. Despite the Romans aiding Greek culture's ascendancy, Greek influence was already significant prior to the Hellenistic period and continued to dominate the East until the fourth century C.E. Some of Alexander’s generals all contributed to the spread of Greek culture. founded the dynasties of the:  Antigonids (ruled over Macedonia)  Ptolemies (ruled over Egypt)  Seleucids (ruled over Babylonia, Syria, and Palestine) This era followed the classical (Hellenic) age and coincided with a peak period of Greek cultural flourishing from 500 to 200 B.C.E. Hellenism included Greek education, ideals of administration, warfare, trade, commerce, sport, rhetoric, literature and philosophy. was effectively spread by Roman emperor Augustus, who made Romans the patrons of Hellenism. There was a mixture of Roman and Greek unity after Augustus After Alexander's death, his empire fragmented into three dynasties: the Antigonids in Macedonia, the Ptolemies in Egypt, and the Seleucids in Babylonia, Syria, and Palestine. The Ptolemies and Seleucids frequently clashed, with Palestine becoming a battleground between

them for over two and a half centuries. This tumultuous political environment influenced the local religious factions, imbuing them with a significant political dimension. 2. Hellenism in Palestine and its Influence on Judaism Hellenization in Palestine, which commenced with Alexander the Great's conquest in 332 B.C.E. and intensified thereafter. Greek language became predominant in commerce, government, and literature, especially in urban centers like Jerusalem. However, Aramaic and Hebrew continued to be used in other aspects of life, resulting in a bilingual or trilingual society. Palestinian. Judaism was faced with either accepting or rejecting the Hellenistic way of life. By 250 B.C.E., all of Judaism, including Greek-speaking communities in the West and Aramaic/Hebrew- speaking Jews in Palestine and Babylonia, was significantly influenced by Hellenistic culture. Antiochus IV Epiphanes Hellenized Judaism to the point of placing a statue of Zeus in the temple in Jerusalem. With time, Jewish faith felt less threatened by Hellenization, and Greek cultural models were adopted more freely. The influence of Hellenism continued into the first century C.E., with a strong Greek-speaking minority in Judea and Galilee. Greek language and culture were familiar to figures like Paul, Jesus' disciples, Josephus, and the patriarchs, yet their Jewish identity remained intact. The fluid identities of individuals flourished and became more defined under the influence of Hellenism and imperial rule.  The Maccabean Revolt (168-164 BCE) ensued and attempted to re-establish the Jewish way. Jerusalem was a highly Hellenized city, with many of its inhabitants being conversant in Greek. The actual rejection of Hellenism in Palestine took place after 50 BCE and was completed in the Jewish wars of 66 and 135 CE. In the diaspora, however, Hellenism was not rejected by Jews. Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE-50 CE) is an example of a Hellenized Jew who did not speak Hebrew, but did speak Greek, lived in Egypt and was an admirer of Hellenism. The failure of Roman procurators and their administration in the 50s C.E. led to the resurgence of radical anti-Roman and anti-Hellenist sentiments among Jewish factions. These sentiments contributed to the eruption of Jewish wars and led to the destruction of a Jewish-Hellenistic culture. Subsequently, Judaism became more focused on preserving its own distinct identity, emphasizing adherence to the Torah, and gradually relinquishing the aspiration to become a world religion, even if Jewish scriptures remained gentile friendly. 3. Christianity's Engagement with Hellenism Hellenistic influences on Christianity primarily came through Greek-speaking Judaism in the Diaspora and Palestine. Many early Christian converts made by Apostle Paul were Greek- speaking Jews from the diaspora. Unlike Palestinian Judaism, the first Christians (with some exceptions) did not reject Hellenism A consensus emerged that Hellenistic Judaism exerted the most significant influence on the early church, underscoring the importance of considering the Greek legacy in the context of this Jewish influence

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The Romans, while claiming cultural descent from Homeric heroes, embraced Greek culture without initiating a distinct cultural identity. Greek remained the primary language of influence alongside Latin. The prestige of Greek culture is highlighted by Emperor Hadrian's dedication of the temple of Zeus Olympios in Athens, symbolizing the unity of Greco-Roman culture. Hadrian's panhellenic program, supported by a revived emperor cult, emphasized Greek cultural values, and contributed to the consolidation of the Roman Empire. Christianity, despite occasional hesitations voiced by figures like Irenaeus and Tertullian, embraced Greek culture more openly. Christianity chose to utilize Greek culture extensively in shaping its beliefs, recognizing the historic significance and benefits of incorporating Greek thought, albeit sometimes uncomfortably Christianity benefitted from the widespread Hellenization of Judaism in the first century, as the message of Jesus was initially formulated in Greek (Koine Greek, was a natural vehicle for Christian proclamation) within the Greek-speaking Jewish community in Jerusalem. Even before Paul and his associates intentionally reached out to Gentiles, Jesus' message, communicated in Greek, attracted Palestinian Jews familiar with imperial culture, as well as Diaspora Jews and Gentile proselytes in Jerusalem. Initially, Christian Hellenists and Christian Jews held separate worship services, but the presence of Hellenized believers seems to have been integral from the beginning. The early Christian proclamation was carried by individuals from the Palestinian middle class, who were open to Hellenistic influences, though their literary and philosophical education may have been superficial. The apostles focused on Hellenized Jews and Gentiles who had been influenced by Jewish communities, achieving significant success among these groups. 1. Encounter with Greek Philosophy Unlike Greek and Roman religions, Greek philosophy promoted ethical teachings. It was similar to the teachings of Judaism and Christianity in this regard. It promoted virtue and happiness and spoke of a dissatisfaction with the actual human condition. Christianity ended up allied with Greek thought. During the first and second centuries, Middle Platonism dominated the philosophical landscape, while Neoplatonism emerged later. Christianity had to grapple with these philosophical currents and define its stance within the broader cultural context of the Mediterranean world. Understanding how Middle Platonism came to prominence in the first place was a crucial aspect of navigating this philosophical terrain. Middle Platonism, which sought to reconcile Plato and Aristotle's teachings with Stoic ethics and Neopythagorean metaphysics. Middle Platonism focused on reflections of God's transcendence and immateriality. The emergence of Neoplatonism marked a shift towards mysticism and religious philosophy, presenting a challenge to Christianity. alliance between early Christian writers and Greek philosophical thought as a means to promote moral teachings and engage the masses, particularly in the Roman world where traditional religions lacked ethical codes. Christianity, making few innovations in morality, sought to alter the moral landscape by aligning itself with Greek philosophy, distinct from pagan cults. Church

fathers distinguished between pagan religion and Greek philosophy, often opposing the former while embracing the latter's ethical seriousness and intellectual resources. Second-century Apologists like Justin Martyr (Was trying to show how Christianity is applicable to Greek philosophy) defended Christianity by portraying it as a philosophy, emphasizing a convergence between the Bible and Greek philosophy when interpreted correctly. The passage underscores the efforts of early Christian thinkers to integrate philosophical principles into Christian discourse, recognizing the potential of Greek thought to bolster the ethical and intellectual foundations of Christianity.  His writings target two audiences: in his Dialogue with the Jew Tripho, he aims to persuade cultured Jews of Christianity's fulfillment of Old Testament promises, while his Apology defends Christians against societal prejudices. Justin asserts that Christian truths can be found, albeit distorted, in pagan philosophies, offering three theories to explain their presence: 1. the theft/loan theory: The Greek philosophers read or borrowed from Moses - hence the similarities between Christianity and philosophy. They somehow got the first books of Hebrew bible, and that’s why there's similarities between Greek philo and Christianity. This argument was used by Philo to argue between Greek philo and Judaism. We know now that it's prolly not the case, or highly unlikely. 2. demons’ theory: Distortions of the truth in Greek mythology are the works of demons. 3. logos spermatikos theory: proposing that seeds of truth exist universally. The whole of the Logos (Word/Reason of God) is present in Jesus Christ, but portions (or seeds) of it are found among Jews and Greeks as well. Logos is the discourse about God. This theory allows for the presence of fragments of truth among religions other than Christianity, but makes use that logos was fully present in Jesus Christ. Justin Martyr's Apologetic Works - Chapter 6, Justin addresses the charge of atheism leveled against Christians. He boldly asserts that Christians are indeed atheists in relation to the pagan gods but worship the true God, the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the prophetic Spirit. This reflects the early Christians' rejection of polytheism and their commitment to monotheism. - Chapter 7 emphasizes the importance of individual accountability and fair judgment. Justin argues that Christians should be judged based on their own actions rather than facing condemnation simply for being Christians. He challenges the accusers to judge Christians based on their deeds and urges a fair trial for each individual. - Chapter 8, Justin expresses the unwavering commitment of Christians to their faith, even in the face of persecution. He rejects the option of denying their Christian identity to avoid punishment, emphasizing the desire for eternal life and the conviction in their faith's truth.

- Chapter 46 addresses misconceptions about Christ's advent and clarifies that Christ's influence transcends time. Justin argues that figures like Socrates and Abraham, though predating Christ, were essentially Christians in their rational pursuit of truth. He emphasizes Christ as the Word of God, whose influence extends throughout history. - Chapter 49 delves into the prophetic aspect of Christ's rejection by the Jews and acceptance by the Gentiles. Justin highlights the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies in Christ and contrasts the Jews' rejection with the Gentiles' acceptance of him. LESSON 5 Syncretism 1. Syncretism in Early Christianity o Figures: Peter, Paul, James Early Christian communities struggled to define the meaning of Jesus' message and faced questions regarding salvation, community conduct, and eschatology, resulting in doctrinal and practical pluralism. refers to Christianity's interaction with external religious factors, particularly Judaism and Hellenism, during its formative years. Christianity, like other religions, absorbed elements from its surrounding cultural and religious milieu, a phenomenon inherent to its growth and development. The term "syncretism" itself carries varied interpretations, often viewed negatively as a compromise of purity or positively as a natural cultural phenomenon. II. Significant Syncretistic Religious Movements during Hellenistic Times These movements, once considered peripheral, are now recognized as integral aspects of ancient religious life, shedding light on diverse religious practices such as magic, revelation literature, cult associations, and astrology. 1. Mystery Religions o Agrarian Origins o Secret Initiation Rites o Examples: Eleusinian Mysteries, Cults of Isis, Cybele, Dionysus involved secret rites of initiation that allowed participants to establish a special relationship with a deity and receive spiritual benefits. Various mystery religions existed across the Hellenistic and Roman world. These religions underwent syncretism and adaptation as they spread, integrating new elements and evolving to meet the needs of diverse populations, often promising believers a happier afterlife or transformed existence Initially tied to the agricultural cycle, many Greek cults and mystery religions celebrated gods and nature spirits associated with fertility and the harvest. This trend extended to Roman religion as well, with deities being identified with their Greek counterparts or new cults introduced to fulfill individual religious needs. Over time, certain deities like Apollo and Demeter gained prominence, while others declined. 2. Gnosticism

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o Esoteric religious movement that flourished during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD and presented a major challenge to Christianity. o Core Beliefs: Dualism, where the physical world itself is inherently evil, in opposition to the world of the spirit (which is good) The Divine Realm: The good God generated other divine offspring. These offspring, in pairs, reproduced. An accident occurred when one divine being (Sophia, a feminine deity) separated from the rest and spontaneously generated another being. The latter, born outside the divine realm, was evil. This latter being created the evil world. o Secret Knowledge (Gnosis) o Views on Material World, Divine Realm, Humanity, Salvation For Humanity  Sophia was captured and imprisoned in the material world in the bodies of humans.  Many humans (though not all) have this spark of divinity in them. For Salvation  The divine spark within humans can escape only by learning through knowledge (Gk. Gnosis ) where it came from and how it can return. For the Church  Gnostics admit that Christians who have faith in Christ and do good can experience some salvation, but the real afterlife is only available to the Gnostics.  Gnostics come to the full knowledge of the secrets of salvation. The Divine Redeemer for Christian Gnostics: The salvific knowledge comes from outside the world . It is brought by a divine redeemer , Christ, who brings this knowledge from above. Some Gnostics ( docetists , Gk. Dokeo – to seem, to appear) thought that Christ came to earth seemingly as a human. He did not suffer because he was not flesh and blood . Other Gnostics believed that the divine Christ entered the body of a man named Jesus when he was baptized. Christ then left Jesus prior to his death (hence Jesus’ cry on the cross reported by Mt 27:46 “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”) The Gnostic movement emerged as a significant challenge to Christianity in the mid-second century. It originated from various traditions, including Jewish fringe groups, and developed a complex system of beliefs focused on secret knowledge (gnosis). Gnosticism rejected the Jewish God as flawed and sought to correct perceived deficiencies in biblical teachings. Gnostics viewed the material world as inferior and sought liberation from it through knowledge of their true selves and the divine. The discovery of Gnostic texts in Egypt, particularly the Nag Hammadi Library, provided valuable insights into Gnostic beliefs and practices. These texts, written mainly in the second and third centuries, reveal diverse interpretations of scripture and elaborate allegorical methods of interpretation. Gnosticism amalgamated various religious elements of the time, including astrology, magic, and Greek philosophy, around a biblical core. Gnostic teachers, such as Valentinus and Basilides, established influential groups in cities like Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch. These groups engaged in biblical criticism and speculative

theology, interpreting scripture through secret revelations and allegorical methods. Gnostics were considered the first speculative theologians in the Christian tradition and were labeled as sectarian or heretical by their opponents within the church. 3. Manichaeism o Origins and Universal Elements o Dualistic Worldview: Good vs. Evil o Influence and Challenges to Christianity Originating from Persia and centered on the Persian Sun-God Mithras, Mithraism gained popularity among soldiers, sea-merchants, and city dwellers in the Roman Empire. It was a male- exclusive cult with solar symbolism and strong moral principles akin to Stoicism. Mithraism exhibited similarities to Christianity, such as celebrating Mithras's birth on December 25 and emphasizing moral conversion. Manichaeism synthesized elements from various religious traditions, including Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism, making it a truly universal religion. Mani claimed to be the culmination of all previous prophets, including Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus. Manichaeism spread across the inhabited world, becoming a state religion in Central Asia and surviving in China until the seventeenth century. It posed a significant challenge to Christianity in the fourth century, presenting itself as a superior form of Christianity or a religion superior to Christianity. Christianity emerged as a distinct religious movement, absorbing and adapting pagan symbols and customs while challenging established religious traditions. Despite sharing some commonalities with mystery religions, Christianity distinguished itself by being accessible to everyone, openly revealing its mysteries to all believers, and having initiation rites that were not repeatable like those of most mysteries. III. Responses to Gnosticism in Early Christianity Christian writers (heresiologists) emerged in the second century to combat Gnosticism's influence. They found Gnostic teachings unpalatable. Gnostics challenged traditional Christian beliefs in cosmology, anthropology, Christology, and trinitarian doctrine, prompting the church to clarify the relationship between faith (pistis) and knowledge (gnosis). Proto-orthodox" refers to those commonly known as the early “church fathers” (for example, Justin Martyr and Irenaeus of Lyon), who ended up defining what exactly should be “orthodox” (or correct) belief. Orthodox Christianity is non-dualistic, salvation through faith, non-elitistic, yet open to all. Against the Gnostics, Irenaeus emphasizes:  Apostolic succession (the fact that the bishops of proto-orthodox Christianity can trace their appointments back to the apostles)  Rule of faith (proto-orthodox Christians hold certain basic beliefs that differ from Gnostic beliefs)

 Unity of belief (all proto-orthodox Christians hold the same beliefs, unlike the Gnostics, who hold a multitude of competing beliefs) In response to Gnosticism, various church writers, including Justin and Irenaeus, emphasized the importance of faith over esoteric knowledge. They sought to preserve the apostolic tradition from falling into arbitrariness and elitism. Irenaeus, in particular, rejected Gnostic dualism and emphasized the unity of God and the creator, rehabilitating the God of the Old Testament. Tertullian and other North African theologians prioritized faith over knowledge, criticizing Gnostic speculations for distorting scripture and church tradition. Clement of Alexandria and Origen took a more nuanced approach, acknowledging certain elements of Gnosticism while asserting the superiority of orthodox Christianity. Clement viewed Christianity as the true philosophy and sought to integrate acceptable aspects of Gnosis into Christian thought. Origen incorporated Platonic philosophy into his theological system and emphasized the mystical interpretation of scripture. IV. Criteria for Scriptural Canonicity - Ancient: a sacred authority had to date back to near the time of Jesus. So mathiew, marc and so on, but not gospel of mary magdalen or judas - Apostolic: an authoritative book had to be written by an apostle or at least by a companion of the apostles. (paul writing ancient gospels) - Catholic (i.e., universal): books had to have widespread acceptance among established churches (e.g., the Gospel of Peter in the Muratorian canon). - Orthodox: the most important criterion (meaning right faith/belief) – the views set forth in a book had to conform with the views in already accepted books (e.g. docetic Christology is unacceptable) - Inspiration: books accepted as canonical ended up being regarded as inspired by God. Through as the Most imp criteria, but turns out this is preceded by the other ones mentioned V. Gospel of judas one of the most important gnostic discoveries of all times. It was hidden, until 2000. The first translation was not a good one and immediately criticized by Coptic scholars opposed to the translation, which presented judas as the bad guy. The gospel of judas wasn’t written by judas, it was written in gnostic circles, dates to middle or late second century. It presents Jesus as gnostic figure, but it’s not Jesus of the church, it’s a god that isn’t the supreme god presented alongside the father in canonical gospels but rather a Jesus that brings knowledge to ppl and tells them they’re coming from a diff realm, their spirit must be released in order for those in the know to be able to go back to that spiritual realm from once them came. The gospel deals with gnostic cosmology, talk of various gnostic gods including babrello and cyclops and wisdom and Sofia, gnostic cosmology Sofia is the one who rly led to an accident that eventually led to material world and this world in which we live started trapping parts of the divine in it, and that’s who humans are according to Gnostics.

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You’ll find Jesus and his 12 apostles who don’t seem to understand the message really well, and who do the things of the other gods like the god of the old testament who is diff than the god of the new testament who is responsible for creating this evil world. Discussions between judas and Jesus in which judas understands a bit better than the other disciples what he’s supposed to do, this presents a judas that many scholars tend to see as standing in continuity with the previous tradition of being presented as the bad guy, not the good guy like the original translation. On page 33 second line that’s connected with footnote 25 -> Jesus tells to judas not that u will go there in this kingdom, but u will grieve a great deal. So, the first version claims that its possible for judas to reach this world, but another says it isn’t. The da Vinci code: discrepancy between popular speculation, as depicted in "The Da Vinci Code," and scholarly interpretation regarding the relationship between Jesus and Mary Magdalene. Scholars generally refute the idea that they were married, emphasizing Mary's role as a disciple of Jesus rather than his wife. distinguishes between the canonical gospels found in the New Testament and the apocryphal gospels like the Gospel of Mary Magdalene and the Gospel of Philip. Canonical gospels hold authoritative status in Christianity, while apocryphal gospels are not included in the New Testament and are considered non-canonical by the church. Council of Nicaea and how the author of "The Da Vinci Code" speculates about the selection of gospels for inclusion in the New Testament. It clarifies that decisions about canonical status were made by the early church and were not debated by Emperor Constantine at the Council of Nicaea. LESSON 6 Christianity and the Roman Empire (200-500 CE) 1. Roman Religion and Society o Foundation of Roman Society: Peace of the Gods (PAX DEORUM) o Complex Religious Landscape: Local Traditions, Oriental Cults o Importance of Religious Practices for Peace and Prosperity During the period of 200-500 CE, Christianity emerged within the framework of the Roman Empire, which was believed to be under the protection and favor of the gods. Roman society was characterized by a complex religious landscape, with a blend of local traditions and imported Oriental cults, contributing to its religious diversity. Religious practices were seen as essential for maintaining the peace and prosperity of the empire. While Roman religion did not demand strict adherence to specific doctrines, observance of rituals was compulsory, regardless of personal beliefs. Romans considered their religion as foundational to the state and viewed it as a means to preserve cosmic harmony. 2. Roman Rule and Religious Tolerance

the Roman Empire practiced a degree of religious toleration, allowing different religious groups to exist within its borders. However, this tolerance was limited, and non-Roman religions, such as Judaism, were expected to participate in certain state rituals, although Jews were granted exceptions due to the ancestral nature of their cult. Nevertheless, Jews did not perceive Roman rule as tolerant, experiencing more of a "hostile and contemptuous tolerance" rather than genuine acceptance. II. Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire 1. Reasons for Persecution o Alleged Disloyalty to State and Traditional Roman Religion o Accusations Against Christians: Neglect of Roman Gods, Social Disruption The first persecutions occurred between 110 and 211 CE, where Christians were executed for their allegiance to the Christian name. Accusations against Christians included rioting, subversion of public order, and noncompliance with traditional religious ceremonies. Pliny the Younger's investigations in Bithynia and Pontus in 112 CE revealed the association of Christians with social unrest and led to the execution of some Christians. Some reasons: Disloyal to the State: The name Christian evoked an inherited disloyalty to the state. Christians were considered a sect that sprung out of Judaism. According to Porphyry:  Christians were denounced as having turned away from the recognized god. They were accused of being atheists, to which they responded by saying they were “atheist to all those [pagan] gods”.  Christians were considered dangerous not only because of “their crude practices” (ritual murder, cannibalism, incest and magic were some of the false accusations brought against them), but also because they belonged to an antisocial organization that neglected the gods and the ceremonies. PLINY THE YOUNGER (112 AD emperor's personal legate) He observed that Christians were accused of:  Riots  Subversion of public order  Neglecting temple worship  Non-compliance with traditional religious ceremonies Intense persecution took place under emperors: - Decius 250- 251 AD - Valerian 257- 259 AD The persecutions intensified under Emperor Decius in 250 CE, who decreed that all inhabitants must sacrifice to the gods openly, resulting in scores of Christians apostatizing. The persecution continued under Emperor Valerian in 257–259 CE, with bishops singled out as targets to demoralize the Christian community.

The persecutions involved the destruction of churches and scriptures, confiscation of property, arrest of clergy, torture, and execution. Manichees were particularly targeted due to their doctrine's association with Persia, the empire's enemy. While the number of martyrs may not have been large, the hostility and atmosphere of persecution deeply affected the Christian community. o Pliny the Younger's Investigations in 112 CE o Intensification under Emperors Decius and Valerian o Great Persecution (303–313 CE) under Emperor Diocletian III. Response and Growth of Christianity 1. Christian Community Growth A period of tolerance followed from 260 to 302 CE, during which Christianity experienced significant growth. However, the Great Persecution (303–313 CE) under Emperor Diocletian marked a renewed effort to suppress Christianity, sparked partly by fear of Christians' increasing influence in the army and civil service. A sharp expansion occurred between 260 and 302 CE, a period of relative peace conducive to the "triumph of Christianity." By the turn of the fourth century, the Christian community numbered around 5 million, nearly one-tenth of the population, rivaling the Jewish group in numbers. The Great Persecution marked a turning point, as Christians were encountered in all major cities, particularly in the eastern provinces. Many Christians embraced Roman civilization and ideals, viewing them as divinely ordained. Constantine's conversion in 312 CE, among other factors, contributed to Christianity's rapid expansion, reaching around 30 million adherents by 410 CE, representing two-thirds of the population. Jews trailed behind with 6 to 7 million, while paganism either went underground, branched out, or disappeared altogether. 2. Constantine's Conversion and Its Impact o Council of Nicaea (325 CE): Establishing Orthodoxy o Constantine's Role in Christianity's Expansion After Constantine's conversion in 312 CE, Christianity experienced a significant shift in its status within the Roman Empire. Constantine's embrace of Christianity altered the fate of the Christian movement and linked the destinies of the church and the state. was celebrated by Eusebius (first church historian) as a pivotal event that attributed his victory on the battlefield to Christ. saw it as his mission to convert the Roman Empire Galerius's decree of toleration in 311 had already ended the Great Persecution, but Constantine's Edict of Milan two years later granted universal religious freedom and restored property to Christians. With Constantine's favor, bishops gained judicial functions and influence in secular affairs, some even joining the emperor's court. Constantine positioned himself as a patron of the church, convening the Council of Nicaea in 325 to establish orthodoxy and consolidate Christianity's place in the empire. Christianity became a new religious cement for the empire, with adherence to its doctrines seen as essential for maintaining divine favor and the stability of the empire. Constantine's promotion of Christianity marked a significant turning point in the history of the Roman Empire and the Christian faith.

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V. Imperial Legislation and Christianization 1. Legislation and Integration of Christianity o Concerns about Empire's Decline and Christianity's Role o Theological and Political Views on Church-State Relationship Under Constantine's rule, Christianity transitioned from being a persecuted faith to becoming a legally recognized and favored religion. Despite brief setbacks, such as Julian "the Apostate's" attempt to restore polytheism, Christianity steadily gained ground. Constantine's conquests in the eastern provinces, including the founding of Constantinople “the new rome”, brought highly Christianized regions into the empire. However, Constantine faced theological disputes and sought to address them by convening the Council of Nicaea in 325. The triumph of Christianity occurred in three stages: the rapid growth from 260 to 302, Constantine's conversion in 312, and the reign of Theodosius I (378–395), during which Christianity became the state religion. Theodosius enforced Christianity legally, repressed paganism and heresy, and established the bishops as administrators of the church. While Christianity's ascent to power brought prosperity, not all Christians were pleased with the integration of church and state. The birth of monasticism coincided with this period, offering a silent protest against the increasing entanglement of church and state. 391-392 AD  Under the pressure of the Church and in order to enforce imperial unity through religious uniformity and orthodoxy, Emperor Theodosius I declares paganism illegal.  Christianity becomes the official religion of the Roman Empire and Judaism is only tolerated.  Paganism is banned. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 did not change the trajectory of pro-Christian legislation throughout the empire. Western Europe inherited a legal framework heavily favoring Christianity and penalizing non-Christian practices. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire presented Christianity with a chance to influence the formation of the new Germanic realms, which sought to maintain elements of Roman culture. In the 430s, the Roman aristocracy embraced Christianity, contributing to the creation of a predominantly Christian society through a combination of social pressure and genuine conversions. Many aristocrats, now bishops, integrated their classical education into their Christian worldview, promoting secular learning alongside religious teachings. The conversion of Clovis and the Franks to Catholic Christianity in 496 marked a significant shift, leading to intensified missionary efforts by monks in the 500s. VI. East-West Dynamics: Church-State Relations The relationship between church and empire varied between the Eastern and Western halves. In the West, rulers like Constantine continued to support traditional pagan cults alongside Christianity. However, in the East, where Christianity was more established, emperors actively

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discouraged pagan practices and promoted Christianity. Financial aid was provided for Christian charitable activities and church construction, while heretics and dissenters faced harsh treatment. The East, characterized by the exalted notion of the emperor promoted by figures like Eusebius, saw the state as superior to the church, with the emperor embodying divine authority on earth. In contrast to the West where the tendency was for the state to serve the church, in the East, the expectation was that the church would be answerable to and serve the state. The emperor was considered the Emperor of Heaven, with his rule reflecting the superior kingship of God. The person of the emperor held a central position in both civic and religious life, often being revered almost as a deity. Differences in Emperors' Authority over Church 1. Eusebius vs. Augustine on Church-State Relationship Eusebius and Augustine held contrasting views: Eusebius (hellenistic influence) celebrated Constantine's reign as the fulfillment of divine prophecy, viewing him almost as a godly figure instrumental in God's plan for humanity. Emperors like Constantine recognized their role in advancing Christianity and supported its mission, acknowledging the authority of bishops. Augustine's work "City of God" aimed to challenge the notion that the empire's decline was a result of neglecting the ancient gods. He argued that Christianity alone could preserve the best aspects of Hellenistic culture and prevent the empire from complete destruction. Augustine emphasized the limitations of human governments, including Christian emperors, in securing the stability of the empire. LESSON 7 – Christianity in 4rth century: the Aryan controversy The period from 150 to 430 CE saw the formation of orthodox Christianity amidst diverse beliefs and teachings that threatened its identity. Orthodoxy emerged gradually through a series of exclusions aimed at defining the boundaries of the Christian movement. From the early second century, Christianity exhibited a wide variety of traditions, writings, beliefs, and practices centered around Jesus Christ. The challenges from both internal dissent and external influences like Judaism and Hellenism necessitated the development of orthodoxy. Heresies and dissent were considered necessary for the construction of orthodoxy, prompting the church to define its doctrines through exclusions. The strategies employed against dissenters like Marcion and the Gnostics were decisive in shaping orthodoxy. Heresiologists denounced dissenters as obstacles to the church's mission and employed polemical techniques to discredit them. The emerging orthodox group sought to sacrifice universality for uniformity and defined itself in opposition to diversity. The Marcionite movement posed a significant challenge to orthodox Christianity. Marcion rejected the Old Testament and sought to create a drastically reduced canon of Christian scriptures. However, figures like Justin and Irenaeus worked to rescue the Old Testament and

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define the canon of the New Testament. The process of canonization was complex and remained a sensitive issue, with no official decisions recorded in the early centuries. The Gnostics and the Montanists presented significant challenges to orthodox Christianity during the second and third centuries. The Gnostics accepted the Old Testament but subverted it through allegorical interpretation. They welcomed numerous authoritative writings and embraced a multiplicity of gospels and reports about Jesus' life, often relying on secret traditions to justify their beliefs. Heresiologists depicted Gnostics as novelty-mongers and associates of Satan, emphasizing the need for a unified tradition passed down from the apostles. In contrast, the Montanists emphasized prophecy and apocalyptic beliefs, claiming divine revelations and predicting the imminent establishment of the New Jerusalem. They challenged the authority of bishops and the traditional church hierarchy. Although doctrinally orthodox, the Montanists clashed with established traditions and were ultimately rejected by the church. Similarly, the Donatists emerged in North Africa following the Great Persecution under Diocletian. They contested the validity of sacraments administered by clergy who had lapsed under persecution, advocating for a purer, separatist form of Christianity. The Donatist schism led to a prolonged conflict with the orthodox church, with Augustine eventually condemning them as heretics. Augustine's arguments against the Donatists shaped prevailing views of the church as inclusive and sacraments as valid regardless of the minister's worthiness. The church favored integration with society and rejected the separatist tendencies of movements like the Donatists, embracing a catholic identity that extended beyond regional boundaries. Ultimately, orthodoxy emerged as a response to the diverse beliefs within Christianity, marked by exclusions and the definition of doctrine. The painful process of defining orthodoxy involved the rejection of dissenting views and the securing of a unified identity for the Christian movement. The Arian controversy emerged in the late third century as a theological dispute over the nature of Christ and his relationship to God. Arius, a respected presbyter in Alexandria, taught that the Son, or Logos, was a created being and not equal to the Father in essence. His teachings sparked a doctrinal storm that led to numerous councils and debates throughout the fourth century. The Council of Nicaea in 325, convened by Emperor Constantine, aimed to resolve the controversy. It affirmed the divinity of Christ and declared him to be of the same substance (homoousios) as the Father, rejecting Arianism. However, the Nicene agreement was not universally accepted, and the debate continued, fueled by theological, political, and linguistic complexities. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, played a crucial role in defending Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism. Further doctrinal refinements occurred at the Council of Constantinople in 381, which clarified the status of the Son and affirmed the full humanity of Christ, thus solidifying the doctrine of the Trinity.

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Emperor Theodosius I enforced Nicene orthodoxy as the official religion of the Roman Empire, underscoring the political dimensions of theological debates. Dissenters, including Arians, faced penalties and ostracism from the mainstream church. The Manichees, a dualistic religious sect, were often associated with Arianism by their opponents. Manichaeism posited two co-eternal principles, God/Light and Evil/Darkness, and attracted educated elites with its simplistic explanation of evil and suffering, deterministic worldview, and rejection of Old Testament traditions. The Pelagian controversy, which occurred from around 402/405 to 431, centered on the theological debate between Augustine and Pelagius regarding the nature of human free will and its relationship to divine grace. Pelagius, a British-born ascetic, challenged Augustine's view that human actions are bound by sin and require grace to produce good deeds. Pelagius emphasized the inherent freedom of human will as a divine gift, enabling individuals to strive for perfection even before baptism. Augustine, on the other hand, stressed the primacy of divine grace in liberating human will from sin and enabling virtuous actions. The controversy unfolded against the backdrop of the Western Roman Empire's split from the Eastern part, contributing to growing theological and cultural differences between Rome and Constantinople. Pelagius's teachings appealed to those who sought a more optimistic view of human potential and the possibility of achieving perfection through individual effort. Augustine, fearing the collapse of Christian faith, vigorously opposed Pelagius's views, ultimately leading to Pelagius's condemnation and excommunication in 417–418. Despite Augustine's victory, the debate over the interaction between human free will and divine grace persisted, echoing throughout Western Christianity for centuries. The Pelagian controversy reflected broader tensions within the church over orthodoxy, dissent, and the formulation of doctrinal norms. Dissent and debate, although often contentious, played a crucial role in defining and affirming the faith of the church. The exclusion of dissenters and the formalization of norms represented a double movement: rejecting inadequate interpretations while affirming and formulating the church's doctrine. The formalization of norms in Christianity mirrored developments in Judaism, where the aftermath of the Second Jewish Rebellion led to the restructuring of Jewish religious life around the synagogue and the codification of beliefs in the Mishnah. The development of religious and liturgical practices played a significant role in shaping Christian theology and doctrine. Practices such as baptism, the Eucharist, and prayer preceded formal theological definitions and provided the foundation for doctrinal assertions. For example, the title "Mother of God" for Mary and the concept of original sin were embraced by believers long before they were officially accepted or explained theologically. The axiom "lex orandi, lex credendi" (the rule of prayer lays down the rule of faith) suggests that orthodox consensus should align with the religious sense of believers, with creed and theology following the faith of the universal church. Vincent of Lérins' notion of an orthodox consensus,

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expressed in the phrase "that which has been believed everywhere, always and by all," reflects the process of consolidation that led to Christian orthodoxy. Similar developments emphasizing the interrelationship between worship and doctrine can be found in other religious and secular contexts. Christian liturgical practices, influenced by Jewish worship, carried devotional doctrines from the primitive tradition and embodied symbolic expressions of theological discourse. The worship of the Christian community, evident in liturgical documents from the Didache to Hippolytus's Apostolic Tradition, served as a means of expressing emerging theological distinctiveness. Despite separate trajectories between Rome and Byzantium after the division of the empire, worship and dogma remained interconnected. While the East may have been more inclined toward metaphysical speculation, and the West toward ethical concerns, liturgical practices reflected common doctrinal elements across the Christian world, serving as a foundation for orthodoxy. Reading 2 creed of nicaea affirmations of belief in God the Father as the Almighty Creator of heaven and earth, of all that is seen and unseen. It then affirms belief in Jesus Christ as the only Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages, light from light, true God from true God, and consubstantial (homoousios) with the Father. Purpose was to establish a clear statement of Christian belief regarding the nature of God and the relationship between God the Father and Jesus Christ. The creed aimed to refute the teachings of Arius, who denied the full divinity of Jesus Christ, considering Him a created being. Reading 3 creed of constantinople Retains the core statements of the Nicene Creed regarding the Father and the Son but includes an explicit affirmation of belief in the Holy Spirit. It begins with affirmations of belief in God the Father as the Almighty Creator and in Jesus Christ as the only Son of God, consubstantial with the Father. The Creed then continues to affirm belief in the Holy Spirit as the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father. So, purpose was to reaffirm and expand upon the Nicene Creed of 325, particularly concerning the personhood and role of the Holy Spirit within the Trinity. It aimed to address theological issues that had arisen since the Council of Nicaea. Lecture The Persecution of Christians by the Roman Emperor Diocletian (303-305 AD) included: - Destruction of churches - Arrests of heads of churches – they would be released if they consented to libations and sacrifices (a test to detect Christians) Persecution continued until 312 AD, even after Diocletian was no longer emperor. Licinius and Maxentius Licinius, in full Valerius Licinianus Licinius (died 325), was Roman emperor from 308 to 324. He was elevated to the rank of augustus (in 308) by his friend Galerius, who had become emperor. Galerius hoped to have him rule the west, but since Italy, Africa, and Spain were held

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by the usurper Maxentius, while Constantine reigned in Gaul and Britain, Licinius had to content himself with ruling Pannonia. When Galerius died in 311, Licinius took over Galerius' European dominions. He married Constantine's half sister Constantia (313). Licinius added the entire eastern half of the empire to his dominion. After a brief accord between the two augusti, Constantine forced Licinius to surrender the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia. There followed 10 years of uneasy peace in which Licinius built up his army and accumulated a huge reserve of treasure. In 324, Constantine defeated him at Adrianople and again at Chrysopolis. Licinius surrendered, was exiled to Thessalonica, and was executed the next year on a charge of attempted rebellion. While agreed upon in February 313, the Edict of Milan was officially proclaimed and implemented starting on June 5, 313, granting toleration to the Christians and restoring church property. Maxentius , Latin in full Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (died 312), Roman emperor from 306 to 312. In 307 he took the title augustus. Maxentius at first controlled Italy and Africa but not Spain, which was controlled by Constantine. Maxentius was killed by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Because the sources from this period reflect the propaganda of Constantine, they represent Maxentius as a brutal tyrant, although in actuality he stopped the persecution of the Christians. He built a huge basilica, which Constantine renamed after himself, and a temple to his son Romulus in the Roman Forum. Constantine 312 AD The Battle of the Milvian Bridge:  Maxentius (Roman Emperor) is killed  Constantine has vision of the cross – “In this sign you will conquer” 313 AD Edict of Milan (Constantine and Licinius):  tolerance toward Christians  Christian symbols appear on the coinage  sentences passed by episcopal tribunals recognized as valid by the state  churches are given the right to inherit property (a measure allowing them to increase their heritage)  places of worship multiply  Christians rise to the highest posts in administration  the first restrictive measures against pagan practices  the cult of the emperor as in some way “equal of the Apostles” Edict of Milan issued by Constantine Augustus and Licinius Augustus  granting religious freedom to Christians and others to observe their preferred religion and worship without restrictions, conditions, interference or persecution

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 restoration of seized places of worship and other property to Christians without payment or recompense  protection of Christians and their property, both individually and collectively as corporations.  urges officials to intervene effectively to ensure that the command is carried out promptly and efficiently.  concludes by stating that the decree should be announced everywhere and made known to all. The Trinitarian Controversy  Arius attacks his bishop Alexander of Alexandria in c. 320 for his formulas, such as “always God, always the Son” (Father-Son relationship)  Alexander attacks Arius for his interpretation of certain biblical passages, e.g. Proverbs 8.22: “The Lord created me at the beginning of his ways.” Was Jesus made (created) or begotten (generated eternally)? Doctrine of trinity: God is manifested in 3 person (father, son, holy spirit). In 325, the question was whether Jesus was the son of god or not. Arius was questioning as whether Jesus was born eternally. Thought that Jesus was just the first creature god created. This divided the church (first important crisis of Christianity). Council of bishops was called to decide is Arius was right. They decided he wasn’t, so Arius was gonna be exiled and be removed from his position. This council came up with the creed of Nicaea. The problem with the creed is that it used a sentence that wasn’t from the bible (namely that Jesus is a substantial being from god) as a result, the debate continued. The second phase will culminate in The Council of Constantinople (381 AD)  Council of Constantinople (held in 381 AD) spoke of God as being one in nature (or substance) and three in persons (Father, Son and Holy Spirit)  It declared that the Holy Spirit is also God, but avoided the troublesome, non-biblical word “homoousios"  General information: substance/nature is ousia ; person is prosopon , hypostasis This is where the issue of the holy spirite was brought up. The concept of “a person” did not exist unil the 4rth century. Think about people in vegetative states, the debate around them goes to show how much debate there is about “personhood.” We passionate about end and beginning of life. But the “consennsus” is that if a person has consciousness then you are a person still. That’s the modern view. Back then a person was if you share the same nature as other of your kinds but still have individual differences. They came to conclusion that the father is god, and share some characteristics with son and spirit but the father is not begotten. Son and spirit both take their being from the father but both in diff ways Lesson 8

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THEO STUDY GUIDES

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