SOPHIA - Challenge religion 2
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1. Summum Bonum
While many religions might share certain language roots, different historical periods reveal the
traits of that culture and time. Often one language or another is specific to a time and the thought
of its culture.
When a concept is in a foreign language, it is best to start with a definition.
Summum bonum
is
a Latin term used extensively in philosophy and theology. It was used a lot during the Middle
Ages in Europe. It means the “highest good,” and, in this case, refers to the Christian and Jewish
ideals of virtue and action.
term to know
Summum Bonum
Latin for “highest good”.
Righteousness is often the term that is translated from the Old and the New Testaments. It is the
idea of the human good in some kind of a relationship with the highest good. Both the Hebrew
and Christian scriptures have hundreds of examples and references to the good in both the human
and the divine realms.
think about it
What is good? What is righteous?
These are hard to define, so the term summum bonum was used in Europe in the Middle
Ages as a way of integrating theology with ancient Greek philosophy.
During the Renaissance, there was a return to ancient Greek philosophy, such as works of Plato
and Aristotle. Ancient Greece was guided by the ideal of the highest good. It had to do with
human flourishing, an ethical life, and the welfare of society. Society was the product of
individual and collective alignment with this highest good.
Plato writes in his Dialogues that one must find one’s root toward action and speech in the world,
such that it is a proper expression of this highest good. For Plato, the highest good was
contemplation of the idea and the form of the good from which come all things that are just, true,
beautiful,
sacred
, and good.
term to know
Sacred
That which is set apart from the ordinary, the worldly, and the mundane.
In a certain sense, summum bonum was thought to exist eternally in the realm of the
transcendent
. Any approach to the good life had to be accompanied by the discipline of
contemplation and reasoning, leading to some kind of intuition and insight into the form of the
good. Action in the world was a conscious striving for the good.
term to know
Transcendent
That which is beyond the ordinary.
2. The Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, this was understood as the contemplation of God informing action and
ethical life in the world. This transcendent realm was the sacred. It was beyond the ordinary
world experience with the senses. Contemplation often meant prayer, but it also involved many
intellectual challenges and commitments, such as the rational problem of faith.
In both ancient Greece and medieval European Christendom, communion with the realm of the
transcendent was an expression of summum bonum.
This was the orientation of medieval Jewish philosophy. This is a clear example of how sommum
bonum was used as a tool to unify many elements of Aristotelian or ancient Greek thought with
the Judaic tradition. This is expressed in the writings of Maimonides. In his
Guide for the
Perplexed
, he combines many elements of Aristotelian thought with an understanding of the
Talmud and the Torah.
During the Middle Ages, there was a lot of creative exchange, conflict, and debate, but
productive religious exchange, in this case among the monotheistic traditions. Many Jewish
philosophers were influenced by certain strands of Islamic thought, such as the relationship
between Averroes and Maimonides and their mutual references to Aristotle.
They both believed that the summum bonum of life was the protection of the intellect as a means
of understanding God and a study of philosophy and the sciences. All must be supported by the
work of an ethical, pious life. Both Averroes and Maimonides referred to the central grounding
importance of duty and law for piety and moral striving to be effective.
summary
Summum bonum
is a Latin term that means the “highest good.” Certain religions might share
common language roots, and if you look at it in a particular context in time, you’ll see how the
thought of that culture is expressed.
The Middle Ages
was a time of great religious excitement,
exchange, conflict, and debate between the monotheistic religions. Islam, Judaism, and
Christianity all had some notion of the highest good. These ideas were expressed and shared
among philosophers and among theologians in the Middle Ages. The idea, however, of the
highest good goes back much farther. This lesson looked at ancient Greece, particularly the
thought of Aristotle and Plato.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Sacred
That which is set apart from the ordinary, the worldly, and the mundane.
Summum Bonum
Latin for "highest good."
Transcendent
That which is beyond the ordinary.
1. The Name of God
YHWH refers to God for the Jewish people.
Judaic tradition states that it is blasphemous to say
or write the name of God in full. It is therefore sometimes referred to as the
tetragrammaton
.
The exact pronunciation is not known for sure and neither is the precise origin of the name.
term to know
Tetragrammaton
Etymologically “four letters” (from Greek); the correct (non-blasphemous) Hebrew name
for the God of the Bible.
Yahweh
and Jehovah are fairly common references and pronunciations used in Christianity. But
Biblical Hebrew does not use vowels, and so it is called the tetragrammaton, which is Greek for
“four letters.” Its first use can be dated back to the eighth century before the common era. In
prayer, the name Adonai is used, which means “master” or “Lord.” Another reference to God is
Hashem, meaning “the name.”
term to know
Yahweh
The Latin transliteration (YHWH) of the Greek tetragrammaton.
In Hebrew scriptures, in the book of Exodus, there’s a story about Moses and the burning bush
where Moses encounters God. There, he receives directions to lead the Jews out from captivity
and exile in Egypt and back to Canaan, the land promised to Abraham, the first Hebrew
patriarch. When Moses asks His name, he hears the response, “YHWH.” Moses then asks what
this name means, and he is told, “I am that I am.”
In Hebrew, YHWH contains the root verb “to be,” with a masculine prefix. It sometimes is
translated as “I will be” and “I will be what I will be.” It’s generally understood as a single
unified, uncreated creator and the source of all life.
Elohim is the other name that is used in this context, and thousands of times in total throughout
the Hebrew Bible. The “im” is a plural ending, which serves to provide different descriptions and
characteristics of God.
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2. The History
The Canaanites, as early as the 12th century before the common era, are believed to have made
an agreement with YHWH, the divine warrior, who offered protection to the Canaanites in the
land of Canaan if they agreed to worship no other gods but him.
Prior to Abraham’s and the Jewish people’s covenant with YHWH, the ancient Canaanite
religion included many gods that had been worshipped throughout the Levant and Mesopotamia.
Some of the other gods were known as El, Baal, and Anat, and were part of a large pantheon of
gods, many of whom were influences from neighboring religions in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The name Elohim is thought to be traced back to this god.
These polytheistic traditions were a complement to the Canaanite religion, which is thought to
have centered around ancestor worship and family household gods and goddesses. When Moses
brought the Jews home to Canaan, he received the Ten Commandments, re-solidifying the call
and the covenant with YHWH.
In the modern-day, the ancient Levant includes Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus
Huttite province and other parts of Southern Turkey, parts of northwestern Iraq, and the Sinai
Peninsula.
summary
This lesson looked at
the name of God
in the Jewish tradition. The Hebrew word YHWH is not
pronounced aloud in Judaism, so it sometimes called the tetragrammaton.
The history
of its use
has been dated back as far as the eighth century before the common era, when the polytheistic
religions of Canaan made an agreement with the single God YHWH to honor and worship Him
and no others. This is generally understood as the emergence of the monotheistic, Abrahamic
tradition. When Moses encountered YHWH in the burning bush and when the Jewish people
returned to Canaan, there was a further binding of the covenant with YHWH.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Tetragrammaton
Etymologically "four letters" (from Greek); the correct Hebrew name for the God of the
Bible.
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Yahweh
The Latin transliteration (YHWH) of the Greek Tetragrammaton.
Glossary
1. Jesus Christ
There are many atemporal strands within Christianity. Every century and epoch in history has its
own non-rational manifestations like this. If there was a first manifestation, an original birth of
the “timeless,” a Christian might say that it was the person of Jesus of Nazareth, an immaculate
conception through the Virgin mother, Mary.
Jesus’ followers were disciples who were committed to his teachings and the belief that he was
the Savior, the Son of God, and the Jewish Messiah who had been prophesied, or foretold, in the
Hebrew scriptures. He was referred to as Immanuel, which means “God with us.” More often he
was called Christ, the Greek word for messiah, or “anointed one;” thus the name Jesus the Christ
or Jesus Christ.
Followers believe that, as the Son of God, he came to reconcile humankind to God. As God
himself in human form, his life, death, and resurrection served to bridge the worlds of the human
and the divine. According to the doctrine of original sin, which was elaborated well after his
death, he came for the remission of sins to offer everlasting life to all who believed in him as
Christ, Lord and Savior.
2. The Trinity
Most denominations of Christianity today accept the doctrine of the
Trinity
, which is based on
the conception of one god manifested in three distinct persons: God the Father, God the Son, and
God the Holy Spirit. These three persons are known as the hypostases.
term to know
Trinity
The conception in Christianity of one God manifested in three distinct persons: God the
Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
There was a great deal of controversy over which persons could be considered co-equal and co-
substantial with God, especially during the first three centuries of the common era. This was a
time when Christianity was a sect of Judaism, and there was perhaps some Trinitarian precursors.
The councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in the fourth century were formally the councils that
would adopt the Trinitarian doctrine.
Prior to these councils many of the writings of Christian theological concerns were done by early
apostolic fathers believed to have contact with the Twelve Apostles. In general, they stayed very
close to scripture, which, most agreed, did not express the doctrine of the three persons of God.
Following this line of belief, the school of Arianism developed in the third century based on a
priest from Egypt named Arius. This teaching held that Jesus, although the Son of God, was still
subordinate to God, not co-equal, not co-eternal, yet distinct as the formal Trinitarian doctrine
would later state in the fourth century.
3. The Nicene Creed
This problem of the same yet different just didn’t work for many people. However, in the early
fourth century, in 325, the first ecumenical council was held in Nicaea, which is in present-day
Turkey. One of the main purposes was to resolve the Arian controversy, and the result was that
Arius was condemned as a heretic. Another result of the council was near-unanimous agreement
on what would become the Nicene Creed, which includes the formal doctrine of the Trinity.
At this first council, the issue of Jesus’ divinity was agreed upon, and at the Council of
Constantinople in 360, the doctrine of the Holy Spirit would be addressed. This solidified the
Nicene Creed and the formal Trinitarian doctrine. This great mystery of the Christian faith is
recognized by most churches, including the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican
communion, and many, many Protestant denominations.
summary
Jesus Christ
is an important manifestation of God in the Christian faith. He is considered the
son of God and God in human form. The doctrine of
the Trinity
states that God manifests in
three distinct persons: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
These distinct
persons are co-equal, co-substantial, and co-eternal with God. This presented a lot of problems in
the first several centuries of the common era such as the Arian controversy. This was overturned
by the Council of Nicaea and the council of Constantinople. By the mid to late fourth century of
the common era, the
Nicene Creed
was established, which incorporates the full doctrine of the
Trinity as it is known today.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Trinity
The conception in Christianity of one God manifested in three distinct persons: God the
Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
Glossary
1. Allah
Allah
is unique for Muslims in many different ways. Looking at a well-known Hadith, or saying
of the prophet Muhammad: “I was a hidden treasure. I loved to be known. Therefore, I created
the creation so that I would be known.” All creation is a calling out of Allah’s love and
compassion, and the names serve to bring one back to Allah.
term to know
Allah
In Islam, God, the Supreme Being.
You might often hear the god of monotheism referred to in the masculine. In Islam, Allah is not
considered male or female. Allah may be referred to as both depending on the context. In some
teachings, Allah’s essence is sometimes understood in the feminine form, but as creator with
attention on the world, the masculine form is used.
The teaching expresses that any apparent dualities are transcended by the divine nature of Allah,
which is wholly one and unified. Allah has many qualities that are reflected in creation. For this,
the name is given in the Qur'an as Al-Khaliq, the creator. It’s generally agreed in the tradition of
Islam that the Qur'an offers 99 names for Allah. The names are organized in three categories:
Perfection
Majesty
Beauty
Addressing Allah by one of these names is meant to always refer back to the source. Calling
attention to Allah through one of these names expresses the adherent’s desire to fully affirm the
oneness of Allah. For a Muslim, Allah is the first and the greatest name. All of the other names
for Allah in the Qur'an are equally important, and they’re meant to be guides to help one return to
Allah.
did you know
Although non-Muslims sometimes think that "Allah" is a different God than the God
worshipped by Jews and Christians, the word "Allah" is simply the Arabic word that
means "God," similar to the way "Dios" is the Spanish word for "God." In fact, Arabic
speaking Christians also use the word "Allah" when speaking of "God."
2. Names of Allah
2a. Al-Wadud
One name is Al-Wadud, “the loving one." In the Qur'an, it states: “surely my Lord is all merciful,
all love.” This contains the idea that is common to the other Abrahamic traditions that this one
god, this single deity, exercises both divine judgment and loving mercy. For a Muslim, Allah’s
omnipotence includes all forms of judgment and mercy.
2b. As-Salam
As-Salam is the name that means “the source of peace.” In the Qur'an, it says that when one
enters a house, one must offer and receive a greeting from Allah. The customary greeting is “as-
salamu alaykum.” In the Qur'an, peace is identified with the primordial nature of man and
woman. It is a state of perfection that resides within but has been lost and forgotten due to
negligence.
The idea is to remember the way home to this state of being internally in a world filled with
conflict and imbalance. The name and the greetings function as reminders.
2c. Rahma
Such reminders are in the Qur'an as well. Two of them are the divine names Al-Rahman, “the
infinitely good and compassionate,” and Al-Rahim, “the all-merciful.” Each chapter of the
Qur'an begins with these names except for one chapter.
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For a devout Muslim, the world and all aspects of creation are an expression of this mercy and
compassion. The Arabic word or term “Ramah” signifies compassion and mercy, which offers a
direct link to Al-Rahman and Al-Rahim, often uttered in the same breath. For a Muslim, these
qualities saturate all existence and form an essential aspect of one’s awareness during prayer and
worship.
2d. Al-Malik
Looking at the idea of governing and ruling, Islamic societies are generally ruled by leaders who
are believed to be divinely guided and inspired. Yet Muhammad is understood to have said there
is no king that has absolute power except Allah. His name in this case is referred to as “absolute
ruler,” Al-Malik.
2e. Al-Quddus
One last name that we’ll look at is Al-Quddus, “the pure one.” Allah is infinitely pure and free of
imperfections. One can show devotion and respect by trying to emulate this purity and
cleanliness in one’s life. This includes:
Clean faith and belief in the oneness of God, which is called Tawid
Clean heart, meaning clean and pure intention
Clean action, which has a lot to do with the physical body
Cleanliness and respect for the body express devotion, positive intention, and love for Allah.
summary
In the monotheistic religions, there are many ways of referring to God, and this is true for Islam.
The greatest name is
Allah
. There are many other
names of Allah
, which are expressed in the
Qur'an.
You looked at several today, including
Al-Khaliq
, the creator;
As-Salam
, source of peace;
Al-
Malik
, absolute ruler;
Al-Wadud
, the loving one;
Al-Quddus
, the pure one; and
Al-Rahman
and
Al-Rahim
, infinitely good and compassionate.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Allah
In Islam, God, the Supreme Being.
Glossary
1. Theism, Dualism, and Monism
1a. Theism
One important concept when approaching the eastern religions is theism. It concerns a belief that
there is a supreme creator god responsible for the unfolding realms of existence, form, causality,
creation, destruction, et cetera. Theistic religions generally worship the divine creator being, very
often called God.
Religions that don’t recognize a single creator god in this way are categorized as non-theistic.
Zen Buddhism is a clear example of a non-theistic religion and spiritual orientation. Hinduism on
the other hand, partly because it is so diverse and has such a rich and far-reaching history, has
elements of both theism and non-theism.
1b. Dualism
A big part of this are the notions of dualism and non-dualism. Notions of God vary within
different Hindu traditions. Most of them recognize and refer to the same sacred texts, the Vedas
and the Bhagavad Gita, but they are approached in a variety of different ways and include
references to many gods.
At the same time, the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita also contain elements of
theism, such as the personal god Krishna, for example, with whom the characters engage.
Because of this, Hinduism is often thought of in monotheistic terms.
1c. Monism
The Western term Monism has often been applied to these particular sects of Hinduism. Monism
refers to the unity of substance and essence; it is the idea that many different things or substances
can be explained according to one principal substance or reality. This is usually understood as a
higher order of being.
The Vedanta refers to the philosophy contained in the Upanishads, one of the central ancient
sacred texts in Hinduism. The term Vedanta itself means the end goal or purpose of the
Upanishads. For a Hindu, final liberation from the cycle of suffering in reincarnation is often
considered to be the principal aim. Historically, there have been different spiritual perspectives
on this, as well as which philosophical tools to refer to and use for guidance and support.
2. Advaita Vedanta
During the eighth century of the Common Era, a man known as Shankara Bhagavadpada, or Adi
Shankara, organized the entire philosophy of Advaita Vedanta. This philosophy brought the
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras into a unified doctrine. This was based
largely on the principle of non-duality between
Brahman
and
Atman
.
terms to know
Brahman
In Hinduism, the unitary spirit that binds together the universe.
Atman
The primitive or fundamental experience of phenomena; the Sanskrit word for "self."
Brahman is the supreme pure consciousness and ultimate essence that is within and beyond the
world. Brahman permeates all existence. It is the source and the end of all being. Atman is the
Sanskrit word for “self.” It refers to one’s true self, beyond appearances and attachments, and
pure consciousness. Proper self-knowledge leads to realization of the essential unity of self,
Atman, with the transcendent, Brahman.
3. Dvaita Vedanta Compared with Advaita
Advaita Vedanta originally developed alongside other Hindu traditions. If you look at another,
more recent, branch of Vedanta, Dvaita Vedanta for instance, you’ll see how its dualism contrasts
with the non-dualism of Advaita Vedanta.
It’s a reorientation of traditional Vedanta according to a philosophy of dualism distilled from its
unique interpretation of the Vedas and Upanishads. It recognizes Brahman or Vishnu as the
Supreme deity. This deity is part of a reality independent from the realm of humans and human
souls, though not necessarily distinct. It is essentially unified but clouded in illusion behind the
veil of Maya.
did you know
Dvaita Vedanta was founded in the 13th century of the Common Era by Shri
Madhvacharya.
What sets Dvaita Vedanta apart from Advaita Vedanta is the strict separation of essences.
Although the Supreme deity is eternal and controls the universe, he does assume a personal role
in human affairs and the world. In this sense there is a dualism in terms of dependence and
independence, which is a characteristic of monotheism.
Brahman, according to Advaita, on the other hand, is more of a metaphysical principle than a
personal god. It reveals a relatively strict monism in that Atman, the self beyond the ego, and
Brahman, cosmic, unchanging principle of reality beyond definition, are ultimately fused. They
are identical, inseparable, and indistinguishable.
big idea
The two main distinctions of these two Vedanta schools are how the human and divine
realms are characterized, as either dependent on or independent of each other. The second
main distinction is how the exchange between these realms is understood: From the
perspective of a relationship through difference and separation, which is Dvaita Vedanta,
or a relationship of essential, primordial unity beyond all illusions of distinction, Advaita
Vedanta.
Understanding the knowledge of the end, the Vedanta, and true self-knowledge are understood to
be part of a unified essence. The dependent and independent dualism of Dvaita Vedanta is
implicitly overcome in Advaita Vedanta.
summary
Theism, dualism, and monism
are all aspects of Hinduism. Theism refers to the belief in a
supreme creator god. Dualism exists in Hinduism because it can be thought of as both
polytheistic and monotheistic. Monism refers to the unity of substance and essence. This means
that many different things can be explained according to one principal idea. The
Advaita
Vendanta
is the philosophy in Hinduism that Brahman and the Atman are not separate but
unified.
Dvaita Vendanta compared with Advaita
, on the other hand, believes in dualism.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Atman
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The primitive or fundamental experience of phenomena; the Sanskrit word for "self."
Brahman
In Hinduism, the unitary spirit that binds together the universe.
1. Confucius and Lao Tzu
Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, was influenced and inspired by Taoism and the writings
of its founder, Lao Tzu. These two men were born 50 years apart in the sixth century before the
Common Era, and their philosophies, taken together, form the basis of many aspects of Chinese
thought and culture.
Confucianism is particularly concerned with the willful and worldly or society-based application
of certain ordering principles. Taoism expresses the importance of intuition, spontaneity, and a
creative understanding of balance, letting be, and action-less action.
Dao is a Chinese word. It is written in pinyin, a system used to transcribe Chinese characters into
Latin. Dao means “the way,” or “the path.” Trying to fix the notion of Dao to the
Tao
is
misleading according to Lao Tzu. As the primordial order and essence of the universe, you can
only let it be, trusting somehow that its manifestations, everything named and experienced in the
world, are lampposts along the way, bringing insight and understanding of the way of the Tao,
which is utterly timeless and nameless.
term to know
Tao
In Taoism, the “path” or “way” the worshipper must follow and with which the
worshipper should attempt to become one.
Lao Tzu communicates this paradox in the first line of his writing, the
Tao Te Ching
. This title
has been translated in different ways, such as
The Classic Book of Integrity and The Way
and
Tao
and Virtue Classic
and
The Book of Virtue or Power
.
2. Lampposts
The teaching of Lao Tzu expresses the importance of living in harmony with the universal force
and essence. This includes receiving and responding to its actions with sensitivity and
compassion, openness to the Tao, expressing one’s self modestly, and trusting intuition as a
guiding manifestation of the Tao itself. In the
Tao Te Ching
, he says every being in the universe
is an expression of the Tao.
He offers many lessons, or lampposts, to help one step out of the way of the Tao so that the Tao
can be enjoined and followed with balance. The first lesson is stated in the first line of the
Tao Te
Ching
. It says that the Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao. The name that can be named is
not the eternal name.
Another important concept is the idea of the return to the natural state of being. This is referred
to as returning to the
uncarved block
.
term to know
Uncarved Block
In Taoism, the original state of the human mind, before and independent of experience.
Secondly, is the concept of Wei Wu Wei, or Wu Wei. This points to a creative letting be or action-
less action or effortless action. This is meant to be a practical guide in life. It involves notions of
trust, watching out for ego desires, and settling into quiet but active attention.
In a chapter on Wu Wei, Lao Tzu says, “Practice not doing and everything will fall into place.”
This can be interpreted in a variety of ways, but it points to the idea that to fully embrace and
allow the depths of Wu Wei to be integrated, one must study, read, sit, and let be while entrusting
accord and balance with the Tao.
summary
Taoism emerged in China in the sixth century Before the Common Era, at the same time as
Confucian philosophy. The founder of Taoism is Lao Tzu, and it’s a philosophy based on the
concept of the Tao, which has been given the translation “the way,” or “the path.”
Confucius
and
Lao Tzu
created philosophies that helped form the basis of Chinese thought and culture.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Tao
In Taoism, the "path" or "way" the worshiper must follow and with which the worshiper
should attempt to become one.
Uncarved Block
In Taoism, the original state of the human mind, before and independent of experience.
1. Primal
Primal connotes a foundation and ground from which something evolves and is built. The primal
religions consider the physical world and the physical environment to be closely linked if not
identical with origin and the source of all life. The Western term that describes this is
pantheism
.
It refers to the belief that God or divinity is spread throughout creation. In this sense, the
transcendent is always present.
term to know
Pantheism
The belief that God and/or divinity is spread throughout creation.
2. Eskimo
The different Eskimo tribes are an example of how primal peoples identify with the particular
region where they live, usually a smaller area. Their access and communication with the sacred
and transcendent realm are usually associated with the animals and the natural structures of that
region.
IN CONTEXT
A story from the Inupiat People, one of the Eskimo tribes from northern Alaska:
Once there was a poor hunter. He always went out but never got anything. Finally one
day, he saw a polar bear. As he crawled toward it over the ice, the bear said to him,
“Don’t shoot me. If you follow me and do what I say, I will make it so you will always be
able to get whatever animals you think about.” The bear told the man to climb on his
back and close his eyes.
“Do not open them until I tell you to,” the bear said. Then the man and the bear went
down into the sea a long way.
“Do not open your eyes,” the bear reminded him.
Finally, they came back up and the bear told the man to open his eyes. The man saw an
igloo along the edge of the ice pack. When inside, the man saw another bear with a spear
in his haunch. The first bear said, “If you can take that spear out of the bear and make
him well, you will become a good hunter.”
The man broke off the shaft and eased the spear point out of the bear’s haunch; the
wound begin to heal. Then the first bear took off his bear skin parka and became a man.
After the wound was healed completely, the bear man put back on his bear skin parka,
told poor hunter to climb on his back and close his eyes, and together they went back into
the sea. When the bear finally stopped, he asked the man to open his eyes. Looking
around, the man realized he had been returned to the spot from which he began his
journey. He thought he had only been gone a day. But on arriving home, he found that he
had been away a month. And from then on, the man was always a good hunter.
This story demonstrates the deep respect and reverence for nature that is characteristic of
the primal religions. Life is lived in balance and harmony with the natural world and all
its processes.
In the story of the polar bear, the polar bear is experienced as a spiritual being. This applies to all
animals; plants, including trees; bodies of water and water itself in all its forms; landforms, such
as mountains, hills, and desert buttes; and even rocks and rock structures. They are all
understood to contain a spiritual essence.
This practice and belief structure is called
animism.
Nature, animals, water, and all natural
cycles constitute the idea of place for the primal people and for the primal religions.
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term to know
Animism
The belief that all living things (and sometimes physical objects) have a soul (“anima”).
There’s no separation between spirit, land, and the people that inhabit the land. Through nature,
daily life, and the daily world is imparted with the transcendent.
3. The Aborigine in Australia
Before Australia was colonized, there were many aboriginal tribes that were associated with
different parts of the country. Each tribe had its own creation story that was specific to the land
they inhabited.
The transcendent for the Aborigine is called the dreaming or the dream time. It is the vital
transcendent realm that inhabits all life, and it tells of how their people arrived on the land, and
provides guidance on how to live on and with the land. This eternal realm is present for the
Aborigine in the surrounding life forms: tribal members, trees, the wind, animals, rocks, et
cetera.
4. The Maasai
In Kenya, the Maasai are a monotheistic culture; they are a traditional people who call their god
Ngai. It also means sky. In the beginning, earth and sky were one, but they were separated, and
the work of Maasai spiritual guides and elders is to help bridge this gap and reintegrate the
transcendent realm into daily life.
One way of doing this is to divine or transmit the mind and the intentions of God to people by
reading stones that are thrown from a cow’s horn. Nevertheless, in the Maasai culture, as in all
primal religions, God is nature and is expressed in all-natural phenomena. The Western term for
this that we mentioned is pantheism.
5. The Sioux
This is a picture of an ancient tradition among many Native American tribes, including the
Sioux. It’s called the sun dance:
On the summer solstice, they would gather (and still do, in some cases) to seek protection,
request healing, and to offer thanks to the creator, Great Spirit or
Wakan Tanka.
term to know
Wakan Tanka
In the language of the Native American Sioux tribe, “the divine”—only rendered in
English as “The Great Spirit”.
Other terms that are associated with Wakan Tanka are “The Divine” and “The Sacred.” Wakan
Tanka, the Great Spirit, is fully a part of the natural world, the land, and the people of the land.
summary
The
primal
religions have many things in common. Most of them emerged out of preliterate
cultures and societies, and many of them have influenced the major religions of the world. The
idea of the transcendent in the primal religions is related to nature, related to animals, plants,
rock structures, natural cycles, et cetera. This is referred to as Animism. Many of the primal
cultures have a very intimate relationship to their immediate surroundings, and that is imparted
with the transcendent and the sacred. Pantheism is applied to the primal cultures in the sense that
they consider everything to be sacred and a part of the transcendent realm. This lesson looked at
several examples of primal religions, including the beliefs of the
Eskimo
tribes of Alaska;
the
Sioux
, along with the Native American Sundance ceremony and the honoring of Wakan Tanka;
the beliefs of
the Maasai
people; and
the aborigine in Australia
, their concept of the dream
time, and how the transcendent realm is really a part of their everyday experience.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Animism
The belief that all living things (and sometimes physical objects) have a soul ("anima").
Pantheism
The belief that God and/or divinity is spread throughout creation.
Wakan Tanka
In the language of the Native American Sioux tribe, "the divine"— only rendered in
English as "The Great Spirit".
Glossary
1. Ontology
In the seventh century of the Common Era, Saint John of Damascus is quoted and credited with
saying, “philosophy is the handmaiden of theology.” This is the idea that faith and reason are not
incompatible, but they support each other. When religion is strong and vibrant in a culture, often
philosophy lends itself to the tasks at hand. This quote from Saint John of Damascus was at a
time when ontology, the study and the science of being, was one of the dominant preoccupations
and concerns.
Ontology itself, because of what it is, has the power to reach every corner of existence. You
could say that all serious questions about life and death, substance and essence, cause and effect,
passive and active forces, et cetera, all reach into the life of every religion, religious topics in one
way or another, and the lives of individuals.
2. Suffering
Life is suffering. This is the first Noble Truth of the Buddha. As Buddhism unfolded, it
developed a spiritual, philosophical, and psychological doctrine for coming to terms with this
fundamental aspect and truth of human life. Buddhism teaches that suffering is caused by
cravings and attachments that are guided by our desires and fears. These desires and fears are a
result of ignorance of the way out of suffering.
Buddhism teaches the practitioner how to train his or her mind to see cravings, desires, and
everything that takes the form of will, thought, and habit when they arise. It teaches to accept
them and simply let them go without grasping and clinging onto the security that our ignorance
tells us they might provide.
The Eightfold Path is a guide for the practitioner to learn self-compassion, compassion for all
beings, moral integrity and intention, and day-to-day consciousness about how one
communicates with the world. Looking at these issues from a philosophical perspective, the
discipline of applied ethics and cognitive behavioral therapy could be seen as direct support for
the Buddhist.
did you know
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A great book that integrates Western psychology and Eastern religion of Buddhism is
called
Going On Being
, by Mark Epstein. Check it out for further research.
3. Good and Evil
What about the question of evil? Buddhism considers evil to be related to this process of
perpetual illusion that guides the unenlightened mind. If evil exists, if evil has a cause, it can be
boiled down to suffering and the way suffering is approached, understood, and misunderstood.
The Western religions, on the other hand, working with philosophy also, have a whole academic
theological discipline related to it. It’s called Theodicy.
Theodicy has to do with trying to reconcile the apparent reality of evil in the world with faith and
belief in an all-powerful, all-beneficent creator. How can evil exist if the almighty is good? Why
would God let this happen?
Certainly, the monotheistic traditions have stories of the fall of man. Christianity, for instance,
tells of how man sinned by disobeying God and was cast out of paradise. There’s a story in the
Hebrew Bible about how evil came to be in the form of Satan. It began with Lucifer, who
disobeyed God’s orders and desired autonomy from God. Fatally unaware of his own pride, he
was cast out of heaven and thrown down to Earth to suffer with his cohorts.
4. Ethical and Moral Codes of Conduct
Notions of good and bad or ethical and amoral conduct are not only a religiously guided issue.
They are also issues that are the ground of civil life. Applied ethics looks at these issues as well.
In bioethics, issues such as euthanasia might come up. This looks at the issues surrounding the
moral justification for mercy killing. Someone might argue that this practice is itself an evil act.
Philosophy and religion certainly could come together or be divided on issues such as this.
Considering questions about death and the afterlife, many religions have elaborate belief
structures and practices to help deal with these challenges, such as various conceptions of heaven
and hell. With this and the other religious philosophical questions that you’ve looked at so far,
the traditions include doctrinal codes that assist the believer in moving along in the right
direction.
Following the doctrine and tradition, the practical life of the adherent is meant to serve as a way
of piecing together responses and solutions to these existential, ontological, and spiritual
conundrums.
In the Eastern religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, there is a return to the
wheel of suffering until release is achieved through nirvana. All of these are additional doctrinal
responses to the questions.
summary
Saint John of Damascus said that “philosophy is the handmaiden of religion.” This is the idea
that life’s big questions are addressed from many different angles, and that
philosophy and
religion are often very compatible. This was at a time when
ontology
was a dominant concern.
You looked at the idea of
suffering
in Buddhism, at
good and evil
, and at
ethical and moral
codes of conduct.
The hope is that answers to the questions can be pieced together through the
practical life of a believer or a practitioner. There are doctrinal responses, if not answers to these
questions, which are built into the traditions naturally with philosophy’s helping hand.
1. Suffering
Suffering
involves the experience of physical and emotional pain, which might include various
existential and spiritual trials and challenges. In the context of religion, it also signifies the
individual and collective response to the suffering of others.
term to know
Suffering
Physical, psychological, or spiritual pain.
If we look at the etymology of the words, “suffer” and “suffering,” they trace back to the Indo-
European root “bher,” which means to bear and to carry. Perhaps the most vivid example of this
is in Christianity with Jesus Christ bearing the weight of sin represented by the cross.
2. Christianity
The early monastic movement within Christianity was exemplified by a group called the Desert
Fathers. They intentionally renounced all physical comforts with the intention of getting closer to
God through the suffering undertaken by Christ.
did you know
Someone committed to these kinds of practices and commitments is referred to as an
ascetic, living the life of asceticism, with the goal of spiritual growth and understanding.
Austerity, simplicity, physical challenge, and even discomfort and pain (in some cases
intentionally inflicted) were considered routes toward communion with God and,
ultimately, release from the suffering that comes from the world.
The different branches of Christianity recognize the value of this teaching to varying degrees.
Most, if not all, also emphasize the importance of consoling others and helping with relief from
suffering. This is expressed through charitable organizations that are associated with the church
and other Christian institutions, such as work with the homeless, or hospice groups that help
guide people and their families through the final days of life.
The Christian idea of penance is also associated with suffering. Confession of sins, repenting,
and receiving final absolution for one’s sins constitute the Christian notion of penance. It
involves the individual’s and the community’s commitment to alleviating suffering. In terms of
suffering or release from suffering, some branches of Christianity have doctrinal clues for what
might be in store in the afterlife as well.
3. Buddhism
Life is suffering. This is the first Noble Truth of the Buddha. The Sanskrit term for it is
Dukkha.
As Buddhism unfolded, it developed a spiritual, philosophical, really a psychological doctrine
for coming to terms with this fundamental truth of human life. Buddhism’s second Noble Truth
states that suffering is caused by cravings and attachments that are guided by our desires and
fears, which are a result of ignorance of the way out of suffering.
term to know
Dukkha
In Buddhism, suffering.
One thing that Buddhism teaches the practitioner is how to train his or her mind to see cravings,
desires, and everything that takes the form of will, thought, and habit when they arise. From
there it teaches to accept them and simply let them go without grasping and clinging to the
security that our ignorance tells us they might provide.
The Noble Eightfold Path
is a guide for the practitioner to learn the value of
karuna
, which
means “compassion.” It includes both self-compassion and compassion for all beings. Buddhism
emphasizes compassion, moral integrity, intention, and a holy life that’s committed to day-to-day
consciousness about how one communicates with the world. These represent aspects of the three
jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma, or the “teaching,” and the Sangha, or the
“community.” It offers a possibility of release or liberation from suffering, a state of being
known as
nirvana.
terms to know
Noble Eightfold Path
In Buddhism, a series of practices that lead to enlightenment and to the end of suffering.
Karuna
In Buddhism, the practice of compassion.
Nirvana
In Buddhism, liberation.
4. Hinduism
In Hinduism, suffering is believed to be the result of negative actions in this life or in a former
life. These are just laws that must be accepted along the way. The factors that determine one’s
spiritual advancement have to do with personal behaviors and actions, moral and ethical conduct
that, in turn, affect one’s karma and the possibility of liberation from endless rebirth
This liberation is called
moksha.
Hinduism teaches that the manifestation of universal soul is
possible. One of the first sources of this teaching is in the Bhagavad Gita, which is part of the
larger epic tale called the Mahabharata.
term to know
Moksha
In Hinduism, liberation from rebirth.
One of the most important stories in the Bhagavad Gita tells of an exchange between Lord
Vishnu and Prince Arjuna. The setting is a battlefield, and Arjuna is faced with a most difficult
decision. The unfolding revelation of truth represented in this image is given to Arjuna as a
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reminder of his original soul and the ultimate state of peace and freedom that might await him
after the battle.
summary
The Indo-European root of
suffering
, which is "bher,” means to bear and to carry. The example
from
Christianity
of Christ bearing the cross, or bearing the weight of sin for humanity, was
used. You also looked at the idea of Christian penance, the idea of repenting and confessing one’s
sins, and how community support is often available to help alleviate suffering. In
Buddhism
, the
first Noble Truth is: life is suffering.
Hinduism
offers the concept of moksha, the state of final
release from suffering, and the idea of karma, or how one’s actions in the world dictate one’s
entanglements in suffering or not.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Dukkha
In Buddhism, suffering.
Karuna
In Buddhism, the practice of compassion.
Moksha
In Hinduism, liberation from rebirth.
Nirvana
In Buddhism, liberation.
Noble Eightfold Path
In Buddhism, a series of practices that lead to enlightenment and to the end of suffering.
Suffering
Physical, psychological, or spiritual pain.
1. Sin in Abrahamic Traditions
Speaking generally, most religions consider the notion of
sin
to be related to misdeeds,
wrongdoing, or disobeying a holy order or rule of law. In the Jewish and Christian tradition, sin
is understood as working against God’s will, causing the sinner to be alienated from God.
term to know
Sin
Violation of divine will.
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Some forms of Christianity contain the doctrine of original sin. This is found in the book of
Genesis, in the Christian Old Testament. This is the idea that mankind made a fatal error by
disobeying God’s command in the Garden of Eden. It’s the story of Adam and Eve eating the
forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. As a result, they were cast out of
paradise and became subject to illness, old age, and death.
In the Christian tradition, Christ is the intermediary who restores the relationship between
humankind in God. Taking on the sins of the world, He offers a release from suffering and
restored communion with God. The Christian Eucharist is understood to be a ritual reenactment
representing the holy mystery of Christ’s death for the salvation of humankind.
Belief in this person of Christ and the divine process of transfiguration is believed to bring
redemption and eternal life to the adherent of the faith.
2. Sin in Buddhism
Sin in Buddhism is treated a bit differently. First of all, sins are considered to be misguided
actions like in many other traditions, but they’re not associated with disobeying a divine
authority. The cause of sin, the cause of actions that are impure, has to do with the clouded mind.
These clouded, negative mental states are called
kleshas
, and all of the numerous states of
impurity ultimately derive from the three primary kleshas: ignorance, attachment, and aversion.
They’re also called the “three unwholesome roots” and “the three poisons.”
term to know
Klesha
One of many different negative emotions that impede liberation and enlightenment.
Poor judgment based on the kleshas leads to poor practice and actions, which would also be
considered and called sinful. Buddhist monks, in fact, have specific confessional prayers, such as
the Prayer of the 35 Buddhas, which is meant to purify the mind, speech, and action in the world.
summary
Every religion has some kind of relationship to wrongdoing and misguided action. Oftentimes,
sin is a common translation for these things. Sin is treated differently in different traditions.
Sin
in the Abrahamic Traditions
is disobedience of God’s will. Sin comes from the original sin in
Christianity.
Sin in Buddhism
results from the different kleshas that cloud the mind.
1. Life after Death
The mystery of death has preoccupied the human race since the beginning. This mortal truth is
deeply woven through humanity’s collective unconscious.
What do people do with that knowledge? The problem is, it’s not really knowledge. Without
some structure for this mystery, the issue, perhaps even the potential knowledge of death, gets
avoided. Death gets suppressed and subverted by fear. It gets displaced into other, perhaps
dysfunctional, forms of life and behaviors.
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One of the many things that the world’s religions have in common is some kind of belief in the
afterlife, a vision for life beyond death, and immortality. This vision informs the actions,
perceptions, insights, and states of mind of an adherent to a particular religion.
2. Monotheistic Religions
In many branches of Christianity, there’s a hopeful vision of everlasting life and the spiritual
presence of God. Heaven is a return to paradise, but depending on one’s conduct in life, one’s
future might not bode so well. Vivid stories exist in the Bible of a subterranean realm of further
suffering, called Hell.
The monotheistic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—all have some notion of judgment
upon death of the body. It’s generally believed to be a time of reckoning, when one’s soul
receives God’s mercy and judgment, which determines one’s placement in the eternal realms.
3. Buddhism
This vision is not confined to the monotheistic religions. Buddhism considers the hope of
nirvana
the final liberation from the endless cycle of rebirth into the wheel of life’s suffering.
However, this is also believed to be contingent upon one’s actions and conduct in life. Karma
plays a big part in determining one’s placement in any future realm beyond death of the body.
term to know
Nirvana
In Buddhism, liberation from suffering.
4. Primal Religions
In the primal religions, too, there is a great reverence for the hope that is offered in the afterlife.
This exists in terms of the role that the
ancestors
play in facilitating communications with the
living. They’re conduits to the supernatural realm.
term to know
Ancestor
In primal religions, a deceased member of one's family tree with whom the living may
remain spiritually connected.
While death might be equally mysterious and perhaps feared, the hope and possibility of some
eternal peace and ongoing connection with loved ones who have crossed over into the spirit
world is an important aspect of many primal religions.
5. Transformation
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With so many religions saying it is your actions in this life that determine your next, what guides
someone to live a good life?
Well, in Christianity, it is the life and the presence and the teachings of Jesus Christ, a container
for the mystery of life, the mystery of death, and the promise of salvation. Any suffering and
confusion along the way are the creative means to a brighter future.
In the Apostle Paul’s letter to the Philippians, he says, “And the peace of God, which passeth all
understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Jesus Christ.” The hopeful Christian
message is contained in the life teachings of Jesus Christ, a model of transforming suffering into
peace and understanding through love. For many Christians, Jesus Christ is a model of mercy
and forgiveness, guiding the transformation from sin to righteousness.
summary
In talking about death, we pointed to several religious traditions that regard death as an open
door, where the believer or the practitioner is invested with some kind of hope in a spiritual
continuity beyond death of the body. You looked at the beliefs of the
monotheistic religions
first. Then you learned about the belief in nirvana in
Buddhism
. Many
primal religions
believe
in connection to the spirit world through their ancestors. You also looked at Christianity and the
life of Jesus as a model of
transformation
.
1. Evil
In spite of the fact that evil seems to poke its head into every era and every culture, it has been
predominantly a topic of concern, study, and analysis in the west among the monotheistic
religions. However, polytheistic religions, such as certain ancient Egyptian religions, also had
references to the forces of evil, sometimes in the form of gods.
did you know
One such god is Set, the god of storms and chaos. In many sects, he was terribly feared,
not trusted because he chose to remain separated from the other gods. This hints at the
dualism between good and evil.
This sharp dualism between good and evil, particularly emphasized in the Jewish and Christian
tradition, is also a characteristic of Zoroastrianism, one of the ancient Persian religions from the
region of present-day Iran.
Its founder was a man named Zoroaster who wanted to simplify the Pantheon of gods. He
divided the system up into what he believed to be two oppositional forces represented by Ahura
Mazda, known as “illuminating wisdom,” and Angra Mainyu, or “destructive spirit.” This
dualistic element of the Zoroastrian religion, after serving as the state religion for a few hundred
years, had various influences on the monotheistic religions.
Analyzing this problem of evil in the light of notions of God as an omnipotent, beneficent creator
is known as
theodicy
. It’s a philosophical, theological attempt to justify God’s goodness despite
the reality of evil. There are many attempts at this, but theodicies generally try to show that God
is not responsible for evil, but evil manifests when goodness is corrupted by individuals.
term to know
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Theodicy
A philosophical attempt to justify God’s goodness despite the reality of evil.
One key force or factor in this structure of dualism is the idea of individual
free will
, a doctrine
explicated in great detail by certain Christian theologians beginning with Saint Augustine in the
fourth century in the Common Era. The doctrine of free will suggests that, as individuals created
by God, humans have the freedom to choose and decide how to behave. This is the freedom to
choose between what is right and what is wrong and between good and evil.
term to know
Free Will
The ability to choose between good and evil, prominent in the religious philosophy of
Augustine.
In his 1940 book,
The Problem of Pain
, C.S. Lewis writes, “When we act from ourselves alone,
that is, from God and ourselves, we are collaborators in or live instruments of creation, and that
is why such an act undoes with backward mutters of dissevering power, the uncreative spell
which Adam laid upon his species.”
This has to do with an abuse of free will. It’s the idea that mankind made a fatal error by
disobeying God’s command in the Garden of Eden. It’s a story of Eve and Adam eating the
forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, being cast out of paradise, and now
subject to illness, old age, and death.
2. Judgment
Following from this, a person’s future destination in either the realm of Heaven or Hell will
ultimately be determined by God’s judgment of his or her actions in life on
Judgment Day
, the
day on which God will call human beings to account for their sins and other misdeeds.
term to know
Judgment Day
The day on which God will call all human beings to account for their sins and other
misdeeds.
With regard to the problem of evil, the complex relationship between God’s creation and God’s
judgment is often understood as a single act. This interpretation highlights God’s goodness and
omnibenevolence.
In Judaism, the day of judgment is recognized every year as Rosh Hashanah, and God’s final
verdict is sealed on the Day of Atonement, called Yom Kippur. This is a day of fasting and
praying to God as repentance for any and all wrongdoings.
As noted in the beginning, all religions grapple with the problem of evil. The other Abrahamic
tradition that we haven’t mentioned yet is Islam, which also emphasizes God, or Allah, as
omnibenevolent and a just creator. Evil is something that arises from people’s actions
independent of God and ultimately a corrupted force.
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3. Evil in Eastern Religions
In the Eastern religions, very generally, evil is understood as ignorance and illusion. Any Western
dualisms between good and evil don’t directly apply. In Buddhism, for example, it’s the structure
and the deep roots of suffering that might be considered evil in the sense that they obstruct the
path toward enlightenment. Ultimately, suffering is caused by the endless clinging and grasping
for identity, which is constantly changing and in flux. Being impermanent, any identity, the
associated experience of suffering, and even notions of evil are mere illusions.
3a. Hinduism
In Hinduism, any idea of evil has to do with actions or karma. Actions that are impure might
cause one to endure the rounds of reincarnation. Karma determines how things unfold, for better
or for worse. Free actions are often misinformed and misguided. Then this brings further
interpretations that are inaccurate, producing negative results. This hinders spiritual
development. In this sense, they could therefore be termed evil. Because humans are ignorant of
Brahman, the ultimate source and divine principle of being, and of Atman, our true selfhood,
which is identical with Brahman, we grasp on to what we think is real, such as our images of
selfhood and even ideas and conceptions of good and evil.
3b. Confucianism
Some interpreters of Confucian thought understand evil as anything that corrupts the harmony,
balance, strength, and integrity of society. Any manifestations of evil are nevertheless
opportunities to reaffirm the values of order, discipline, respect for authority, and the stabilizing
force of healthy relationships in society. These are some of the foundational principles of
Confucianism.
3c. Taoism
The notion of evil according to Taoism, or for someone who is following the path of the Tao,
might be understood a little bit differently.
Any corruption of the pure state of nature, known as
the
uncarved block
, might be considered the unfortunate work of society. The path of a Taoist
would, therefore, include disregarding any such negative, evil influences.
term to know
Uncarved Block
In Taoism, the original state of the human mind, before and independent of experience.
summary
This lesson started out talking about
evil
with reference to ancient Egyptian religions. Set, the
god of the chaos and destruction, was regarded as evil because he had made the choice to
separate himself from the other gods. Other conceptions of evil are not dissimilar. In
Zoroastrianism, there was a separation between two forces. This was the beginning of a dualistic
structure of thought with regard to evil, which had a big influence upon the monotheistic
religions. You looked at the example from Judaism of Lucifer, who also desired autonomy from
God and as a result became separated. This is often thought to be the origin of sin and evil. This
lesson also covered disobeying divine authority in terms of Adam and Eve and how this was
related to the idea of free will. Evil, free will, and
judgment
all play together in the monotheistic
religions. You also looked at Judgment Day and the Day of Atonement, or Yom Kippur.
Evil in
Eastern religions
is looked at a little differently. Evil is really regarded as something of an
illusion. It is something that either obstructs the path to enlightenment or something that disrupts
the order and balance and harmony of society.
1. Mysticism
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The word
mysticism,
comes from two Greek words: “to conceal” and “to initiate.” Western
psychology has a very long history of offering an interpretive lens for understanding mysticism
and mystical experience. Sigmund Freud linked it to the primitive ego feeling of a child prior to
separation from the mother. In other words, the feeling of complete immersion and oneness with
the other, where there is no separation between oneself and life’s source and sustenance.
term to know
Mysticism
A religious approach that emphasizes one’s personal experience of divinity and/or the
presence of divinity over philosophical or rational approaches.
This changes, separation occurs, and the ego develops with all of its constructions of self and
other. This development of ego includes all of its defenses that try to protect the individual from
the suffering that this might cause.
Very generally and broadly, the term “mysticism” is oriented around the possibility of seeing
through these and other false constructions that might hinder awareness of something else.
Generally in history, this has meant an experience of and communion with the divine. Mysticism
is not necessarily a specific path but refers to something experiential that is not that easy to
define.
did you know
In the religion of Santeria, which contains elements of many different religions and
traditions, including Native American, Roman Catholic, West African, and Caribbean,
one custom involves dancing and drumming with the goal of communing with the deities
and making contact with ancestor spirits. Santeria, Vodoun, and other Afro-Caribbean
religions will use Catholic symbolism combined with African deities. Oftentimes, there is
a spirit possession that takes place in these Afro-Caribbean services.
Many of the world’s religions have elements of mysticism in them in terms of customary
practices that might guide one toward greater clarity and insight. This perhaps allows for a
different level of receptivity, something one might normally be conditioned to avoid. Some
examples of these traditional practices include
meditation
,
contemplative prayer
, mantras, and
chanting
.
terms to know
Meditation
A practice that aims to clear the mind in order to be receptive to divinity.
Contemplative Prayer
An attempt to put oneself in contact with the sacred/divine via clear and quiet thinking.
Chant
An often-repetitive song that aims to induce a state of spiritual receptivity in the
worshipper.
The idea with mantras and chanting is that an excessive repetition of specific words and sounds
will assist in transporting one beyond the realm of the familiar and ordinary world. There are also
particular indigenous and tribal practices, such as drumming, dancing, and ingesting
psychoactive plants, intended to induce a state of
ecstasy
or a state of union with the divine that
brings extreme feelings of joy and happiness.
term to know
Ecstasy
A state of intense spiritual joy and/or physical pleasure.
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2. Anatman
Western psychology has many interpretive structures in common with Buddhism, particularly
when talking about the nature of experience and the role of the ego and the self. Freud used the
phrase “primitive ego self,” unconditioned by experience of separation from source and
sustenance.
In Buddhism, there’s a Sanskrit term,
anatman
, which means “no self.” The idea is that suffering
is caused by the endless clinging and grasping for self-identity, an identity that is constantly
changing and in flux. Being impermanent, any identity and the associated experience of self is
mere illusion.
term to know
Anatman
In Buddhism, the experience of the loss of self, usually combined with mystical religious
experience.
In other words, anything that you might cling to for security and identity, such as your things,
your body, your concepts, your knowledge, et cetera, is in fact empty. Everything is empty. All
phenomena are inherently empty of self, because everything is completely interdependent upon
and the result of something else, something other than itself.
The Buddhist hopes to gain insight into this doctrine of dependent origination, as it’s called,
which is linked with the non-conceptual experience of emptiness—in Sanskrit
shunyata
.
Meditation, chanting, silence, and, in many sects of Buddhism, prayer are all used to facilitate
these experiences of emptiness and no self.
term to know
Shunyata
In Buddhism, “emptiness” that leaves one more receptive to enlightenment through
prayer and contemplation.
Another example of mysticism from some branches of Tibetan Buddhism is the practice of
creating elaborate, colorful designs called mandalas using tiny granules of sand. Based on the
text
Kalachakra Tantra
, these mandalas represent the three wheels of time. They’re used for
initiation ceremonies, where the initiate meditates on the images, attaining a vision of the
Buddha body and divine emptiness. These mandalas are also used for generating compassion and
extending peace out into the world.
3. Mysticism in Hinduism
In
Advaita
Vedanta, the non-dualistic school of Hinduism, there’s this idea that Atman and
Brahman can be experienced simultaneously. Atman is the true self, and Brahman is the absolute
principle of being, or the absolute reality. There are certain methods that one can practice in
order to experience this state of non-dualism. This is sought through different yoga practices,
chants, and meditations.
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term to know
Advaita (non-dual) consciousness
An altered mental or emotional state in which the person no longer experiences a
difference between the internal and external.
In other branches of Hinduism, such as Vaishnavism, there are certain devotional yoga practices
called bhakti, which are designed to help the devotee achieve complete surrender to and union
with God, with the god Vishnu, or his incarnation, Krishna. In some cases, a vision of some part
of Vishnu’s body will be encountered and experienced.
4. Desert Fathers
The Western religions, too, have a long history of mystical approaches to the divine. The
experiences of the early Christian Desert Fathers are an example. They often lived lives of
extreme simplicity with the goal of getting closer to God.
The hope was that, by stripping away the distractions of the known world, one could achieve
some kind of union and communion with God. These early forms of monasticism had a great
influence on the mystical tradition that was to follow.
5. Via Negativa
In the fifth and sixth centuries of the Common Era, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite developed
a theological system called apathetic theology or “via negativa,” meaning “negative theology.”
The idea behind this is that God can’t be defined. It is not possible to say what he is or indicate
what his positive attributes might be. It is, however, possible to know God by knowing what he
is not.
This is a mystical orientation that aims at removing preconceptions and availing oneself to the
insight that the unknown might bring. The via negativa has also inspired other Christian mystics,
such as the anonymous author of
The Cloud of Unknowing
in the 14th century of the Common
Era.
6. The Quakers
In general, there are many branches of Christianity that have some element of mysticism in them
throughout the early centuries, heavily in the Middle Ages, and in contemporary society, such as
the Religious Society of Friends known as the Quakers. The vision of many Protestant Quakers
who emigrated from England was inspired by a desire to step outside of familial structures of
religious thought, the Church of England specifically, to gain insight into a truth of a different
sort on another level.
Their desire was to know and to love God without anything in between. This is done through a
great deal of silence, contemplative prayer, hard physical work, and dedication to the principles
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and the ideals of a supportive and cooperative community. Some historians of religion have
equated Quakers with mysticism because these conditions are thought to support an attitude that
might predispose one to mystical experience and union with God.
summary
The word
mysticism
comes from two Greek words meaning “to conceal" and “to initiate.”
Western psychology offers the idea that there is a unified experience that precedes the
development of the ego. Freud coined the term “primitive ego self.” This is related to the
Buddhist notion of
anataman
or “no self.” The mystical experience in certain schools and sects
of Buddhism desires to reconnect with that sense of oneness through mandalas, chants, and
meditation. There are elements of
mysticism in Hinduism
as well. It is believed these
experiences can be reached through different yoga practices, chants, and meditations. You also
looked at the development of mysticism in Christianity, beginning with the early
Desert Fathers
through the Middle Ages with the
via negativa
, or apathetic theology. Finally, you looked at
the
Quaker
lifestyle as a way of aligning oneself internally and with the community such that love
of God and appreciation of that oneness can be experienced through the ordinary world and as a
transcendence of that.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Advaita (non-dual) consciousness
An altered mental or emotional state in which the person no longer experiences a
difference between the internal and external.
Anatman
In Buddhism, the experience of the loss of self, usually combined with mystical religious
experience.
Chant
An often-repetitive song that aims to induce a state of spiritual receptivity in the
worshiper.
Contemplative Prayer
An attempt to put oneself in contact with the sacred/divine via clear and quiet thinking.
Ecstasy
A state of intense spiritual joy and/or physical pleasure.
Meditation
A practice that aims to clear the mind in order to be receptive to divinity.
Mysticism
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A religious approach that emphasizes one's personal experience of divinity and/or the
presence of divinity over philosophical or rational approaches.
Shunyata
In Buddhism, “emptiness” that leaves one more receptive to enlightenment through
prayer and contemplation.
1. The Lord’s Supper
In Christianity, a
sacrament
is a sacred rite. The sacred rites are things that are recognized and
observed and believed to be necessary for salvation. Within Christianity, the most important
significant sacrament is usually considered to be the Holy Communion. This is also called the
Eucharist or the Lord’s Supper.
term to know
Sacrament
In Christianity, a sacred rite.
There are doctrinal differences regarding this sacrament, and for that reason, it’s given different
names. The term
Holy Communion
is defined as the reception of bread or wafers and wine that
have been transformed into the literal blood and flesh of Jesus Christ. This process is called
transubstantiation.
term to know
Holy Communion
In Roman Catholicism, the reception of bread/wafers and wine that has been transformed
into the literal blood and flesh of Jesus Christ.
Many branches of Protestantism, however, don’t hold to the doctrine of transubstantiation.
Instead, they consider this sacrament to be a ritual that is a symbolic commemoration of the
Last
Supper
, when Jesus offered himself for the sins of humanity. For this reason, they give it the
name the Lord’s Supper, which is another key term to keep in mind.
term to know
The Lord’s Supper
Commemoration of Jesus’ willingness to sacrifice Himself for the forgiveness of human
sin, traditionally involving the consumption of small amounts of bread and wine (or
appropriate substitutes, such as wafers and grape juice)—also called “Communion” or
“Holy Communion” in some Christian sects.
For Mormons, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the ritual of the
Eucharist, or Holy Communion, is simply called the Sacrament. For the Sacrament, adherents eat
bread and drink wine, although in most cases since the late 1800s, wine has been replaced with
water. In other churches, the sacrament is called the Eucharist, which is a Greek word. It means
“Thanksgiving.” This term is used by the Eastern Orthodox or oriental Orthodox Church, Roman
Catholics, Anglicans, reformed Presbyterian, United Methodists, and Lutherans.
2. Other Sacraments in Christianity
The second sacrament in Christianity is the
baptism
. Baptism is the anointing of a new believer
or church member with water as a sign of acceptance and cleansing by God. Often this is done
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for babies and children but also can be performed on adults in recognition of their entering the
faith.
term to know
Baptism
In Christianity, the anointing of a new believer or church member with water as a sign of
cleansing and acceptance by God.
For most Protestant denominations, the list of sacraments includes only the Lord’s Supper and
baptism. In fact, many Protestant sects of Christianity generally avoid the term sacrament,
following Martin Luther’s doctrine, which states that for something to be considered a sacrament
it had to have its justification and grounding in the direct teachings of Jesus and the direct actions
of Jesus according to the Gospels.
did you know
In the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox churches, which are also called the
oriental orthodox churches, there are five additional sacraments: confirmation,
confession, marriage, holy orders, and the anointing of the sick.
Luther believed that the five other sacraments were unnecessary for salvation. He was critical of
the Catholic Church, which he believed was overinstituting the sacraments with the effect of
separating the believer from Jesus Christ and from God. But for Roman Catholics and Eastern
Orthodox Christians, the additional five sacraments are essential components of one’s salvation
and final redemption.
In Roman Catholicism,
confirmation
is a sacrament by which a believer is accepted into the
church. Confirmation is usually done when the believer reaches adulthood, or the age of reason,
when he or she can make an individual, personal commitment to the faith. In Eastern Orthodox
Christian churches, this is done right after baptism.
term to know
Confirmation
In Roman Catholicism, a sacrament by which a believer is accepted into the Church.
In Roman Catholicism,
confession
is a sacrament by which a priest may forgive a worshipper’s
sins in exchange for the worshipper’s willing and full admission of his or her sin and performing
an act of penance. Penance is some kind of a task that is done, or prayer that is offered, to aid the
process of forgiveness. This is also to help the sinner become more conscious and aware of his or
her actions.
term to know
Confession
In Roman Catholicism, a sacrament by which a priest may forgive a worshipper’s sins in
exchange for the worshipper’s willing and full admission of sin as well as the doing of
penance.
In Christianity, generally
marriage
is defined as the joining of one man and one woman together
in a lifelong household, familial, and sexual relationship. Marriage is a sacrament of the Roman
Catholic Church and some other Christian sects as well, including many Protestant
denominations. In these contexts, marriage is generally understood as a symbolic reflection of
Christ’s sacrificial and undying love for the Church, which is the collective body of believers.
term to know
Marriage
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In Christianity generally, the joining of one man and one woman together in a lifelong
household, familial, and sexual relationship; a sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church
and some other Christian sects.
The church is therefore frequently referred to in the New Testament as the body of Christ.
Marriage is meant to reflect this mystery and commitment and therefore is a significant factor in
the adherence, final salvation.
Holy orders
are the ordination or appointment of people to posts within the Church, a sacrament
of the Roman Catholic Church. The main posts or positions include bishops, priests, and
deacons. The
anointing of the sick
is a sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church in which a
gravely ill person is blessed by a priest.
terms to know
Holy Orders
The ordination or appointment of people to posts within the Church, a sacrament of the
Roman Catholic Church.
Anointing of the Sick
A sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church in which a gravely ill person is blessed by a
priest.
The term anointing in this case is different from the anointing that’s done for a baptism or
confirmation. The anointing of the sick as a sacrament in the Roman Catholic traditions refers to
some sort of healing, including the forgiveness of sin and aiding someone in their passage to
eternal life.
3. Hinduism
One of the Eastern religions that recognizes a sacred exchange between the adherent and the
divine is Hinduism. A
prasad
in Hinduism is a gift, usually food, which is given by a worshipper
to a deity. Often it is placed in front of a murti, a statue, or an image of a god, which is then
considered to be blessed, and after a period of time is consumed by the worshipper.
term to know
Prasad
In Hinduism, a gift (usually food) given by a worshipper to a deity, which is then
considered to be blessed and is consumed by worshippers.
This is a sacred exchange that guides and assists him or her on the path to freedom and
enlightenment. You might think of the Christian sacrament of the Eucharist or Holy Communion
as being similar to this Hindu holy practice of offering the prasad.
summary
Sacramentalism is really an attitude toward the sacraments. The Roman Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox recognize seven sacraments, and many Protestant denominations recognize only two as
necessary for salvation. The first sacrament is the
Lord’s Supper
. The
other sacraments in
Christianity
are baptism, confirmation, confession, marriage, holy orders, and the anointing of
the sick. In
Hinduism
, the practice of giving food to a deity, prasad, to assist one toward
liberation and enlightenment is a sacrament.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
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Terms to Know
Baptism
In Christianity, the anointing of a new believer or church member with water as a sign of
cleansing and acceptance by God.
Confession
In Roman Catholicism, a sacrament by which a priest may forgive a worshipper's sins, in
exchange for the worshipper's willing and full admission of sin, as well as the doing of
penance.
Confirmation
In Roman Catholicism, a sacrament by which a believer is accepted into the Church.
Holy Communion
In Roman Catholicism, the reception of bread/wafers and wine that has been transformed
into the literal blood and flesh of Jesus Christ.
Holy Orders
The ordination or appointment of people to posts within the church, a sacrament of the
Roman Catholic Church.
Lord’s Supper
Commemoration of Jesus' willingness to sacrifice Himself for the forgiveness of human
sin, traditionally involving the consumption of small amounts of bread and wine (or
appropriate substitutes, such as wafers and grape juice)--also called "Communion" or
"Holy Communion" in some Christian sects.
Marriage
In Christianity generally, the joining of one man and one woman together in a lifelong
household, familial, and sexual relationship. A sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church
and some other Christian sects.
Prasad In Hinduism, a gift (usually food) given by a worshipper to a deity, which is then
considered to be blessed and is consumed by worshippers.
Sacrament
In Christianity, a sacred rite.
The Anointing of the Sick
A sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church, in which a gravely ill person is blessed by a
priest.
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1. Zazen
One foundational category in most of the Buddhist lines of teaching is the foundationless notion
of sunyata. It’s a Sanskrit word that’s translated as “emptiness” and “openness.” In the context of
the many different silent
meditation
practices, you might think of it as the silence of ontological
being.
term to know
Meditation
A process of mental focus and relaxation, generally involving silence and physical
inactivity, whereby an individual attempts to calm the mind, often in order to achieve a
more spiritual state of mind or to set aside the cares that impede spiritual contemplation.
In the Zen Buddhist tradition, an essential practice is silent meditation called
zazen
. Zazen
simply means “seated meditation.” There are, however, traditional chants that are often a part of
zazen practice.
term to know
Zazen
In Zen Buddhism, a sitting meditation that is conducted either in silence or while
chanting.
Saying that the purpose of zazen is to achieve liberation from suffering and thus experience
enlightenment is not quite accurate. Zazen practice is characteristically non-conceptual. Applying
positive descriptions and attributes to the meditation process, in fact, moves the meditator further
into the mental snares that cloud the experience of empty silence.
The Japanese term “mu” describes the emptiness or nothingness. Everything else is a
construction of mind and therefore has no ultimate value. Silence is the space where the
meditator might experience the purity of emptiness.
did you know
Frequently, silence accompanies meals. The preparation and clean-up will often only
involve necessary speech.
2. Vipassana and Samatha
The Samatha technique emphasizes strong concentration of mind, called jhana, focused on the
object of meditation itself. The meditator, after achieving some relative state of concentration,
will then engage in
Vipassana
meditation.
term to know
Vipassana
A Buddhist meditation technique requiring silence.
These two techniques often go together because the clarity of mind that can be reached with
Samatha gives insight into the processes of mind and body that are occurring just as they are.
Vipassana meditation allows one to see that. Silence supports this process as does a conscious
awareness of one’s inhalation and exhalation of breath.
did you know
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These two types of meditation don’t always go together. There are Buddhist communities
that are devoted more exclusively to Vipassana or Samatha techniques.
3. Christian Monastic Traditions
Christianity also has a long history of monasticism infused with silence in the practice of
contemplative prayer. This is one of the first Christian monasteries in Mount Sinai, Egypt, where
it is believed that Moses received the Ten Commandments and witnessed God in the burning
bush.
This Orthodox monastery, along with the Benedictine monasteries, which are Roman Catholic,
throughout the world, presents the original monastic tradition. In the Middle Ages, other
monastic orders emerged, and many of them are still thriving today.
The first monastic orders were Orthodox and Catholic and have a long history and solid,
established tradition of
spiritual or monastic silence
, more so than in Protestantism, which
didn’t emerge until the 16th century.
term to know
Spiritual or Monastic Silence
The practice of using silence as a means of prayer or spiritual contemplation, frequently
practiced in Roman Catholic monasteries.
However, the importance of silence is not unique to Catholicism. It plays a significant role in
other elements of religious life for the general community of many traditions both within the
broad diversity of Christianity and in other religions as well.
In general, one thing that hasn’t changed for most of the orders is the commitment to
contemplative life, silent prayer, and work as a means of getting closer to God in this life and the
next. Many novices who are beginning to consider their training as a monk will undertake vows
of silence, which last for different periods of time depending on the order.
During this period of silence, the novice undergoes profound introspection, perhaps in
conversation with God about his or her future life commitment as a monk or a nun. In the silence
of religious life, no one is excluded. So the laity are also encouraged to explore their relationship
to silence and to God through this silence.
summary
This lesson started in Japan with Zen Buddhism and the practice of
zazen
, seated silent
meditation. In zazen, silence is a vehicle, a method, and a practice for possibly experiencing
emptiness or nothingness. The term that we used was “mu.” You then looked at other traditions
and techniques of meditation called the
Vipassana and Samatha.
You also covered
Christian
monastic traditions.
Silence is very much a part of monastic life in terms of getting closer to
God in this life and in the next life.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
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Meditation
A process of mental focus and relaxation, generally involving silence and physical
inactivity, whereby an individual attempts to calm the mind, often in order to achieve a
more spiritual state of mind, or to set aside the cares that impede spiritual contemplation.
Spiritual or Monastic Silence
The practice of using silence as a means of prayer or spiritual contemplation, frequently
practiced in Roman Catholic monasteries.
Vipassana
A Buddhist meditation technique requiring silence.
Zazen
In Zen Buddhism, a sitting meditation that is conducted either in silence or while
chanting.
. Tibetan Buddhism
Some branches of Tibetan Buddhism practice the 12 day Kalachakra Initiation Ceremony, a
community action, or
ritual
, that involves creating an elaborate, colorful, and sacred design
called a mandala using tiny granules of colored sand. The monks spend eight days making the
large, intricate mandala, which is based on a model that has existed in the tradition for thousands
of years. The ceremony and the mandala are based on a text called the Kalachakra Tantra and
represent the three wheels of time.
term to know
Ritual
“Sacred action”; a set of words or actions that are spoken or conducted in the same or a
similar way over time, according to accepted religious, social, or other convention.
During the final four days, the mandala is used for initiation. When initiates or newcomers to the
tantric school meditate on the images and the mandala, they attain a vision of the Buddha body
and the vision of divine emptiness. The mandala and the energy of the community are also used
for generating compassion and extending peace to the world. Only certain parts of these
initiation ceremonies are shared with the public.
2. Hinduism
A very public ritual in Hinduism is the practice of going on
pilgrimage
to various cities of the
gods. India has a very long history of pilgrimages. These journeys to holy cities are part of the
lives of most Hindus.
term to know
Pilgrimage
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A journey undertaken by a believer that has a sacred purpose and/or a sacred destination.
It is traditional to dip your body in the Ganga, or the Ganges River, to honor the goddess Ganges.
This ritual is believed to expedite one’s release from the karmic wheel of reincarnation and
suffering and, thus, bring the person closer to a state of freedom.
Varanasi, also called Benares, is considered to be the holiest of Hinduism’s holy cities, and it is
the destination of many pilgrims. Hindus call it the city of Shiva, because according to tradition,
it was this god who founded the city. Varanasi is one of the seven cities that offer release from
suffering, or Moksha. Many Hindu pilgrims travel from one city to the next for this reason,
honoring and offering their devotion to the particular god of each city.
did you know
The Kumbh Mela, a Hindu pilgrimage, is said to have more participants than the Hajj, the
great Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca. The Kumbh Mela is often considered the largest
pilgrimage on the planet.
In pilgrimages, a ritual is performed by the public community of adherents within a holy place at
a specific time. However, as with the Tibetan Kalachakra tantra, there are entire rituals or parts of
a ritual or ceremony that are reserved for established practitioners and members of a particular
subset of the religious community.
Another important Hindu celebration is Diwali, commonly known as the festival of lights, a five-
day festival that involves the lighting of small clay lamps that are filled with oil. This light
signifies the triumph of good over evil. These lamps are kept on during the night, and one’s
house is clean. The intention is to make the goddess Lakshmi feel welcome. Each day has a
special significance. Honoring this allows the tradition to be integrated with daily life and
transmitted from one generation to the next. During the festival of Diwali, all the celebrants wear
new clothes and share sweets and snacks with family members and friends.
3. Islam
In the religion of Islam, one of the foundational tenets of the faith, called one of the five pillars
of Islam, is the pilgrimage to Mecca, or the Hajj. It is a spiritual journey to Mecca. It is here
where the prophet Muhammad was born and where he had his revelation. It’s the most holy city
for Muslims. It is here where the first mosque, the Kaaba, or Noble Cube, was built. It is
believed to have been constructed in 2100 BCE by Abraham, the patriarch of the three
monotheistic faiths and his son Ishmael.
During the Hajj, six million pilgrims come to Mecca to circumambulate the Kaaba. The circling
of the Kaaba represents the unity of believers and their collective faith in one god. Turning seven
times counterclockwise in worship represents this commitment. Since performing the Hajj is one
of the five pillars of the Islamic faith, if one can afford it and is physically able, one must do so
before dying.
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4. Judaism
The Jewish tradition has a ritual of breaking the glass at a Jewish wedding. This is either done
after the bride has received the ring or at the end of the ceremony. The specifics vary from one
locality to the next.
Amidst all the celebration and cheer, the breaking of glass, usually crushed by the groom with
his right foot, represents the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem. The collective participation
in this section and its witnessing expresses that in spite of the joy of the occasion, Jews
everywhere still mourn the loss and destruction of the temple in Jerusalem.
summary
Sacred actions that have some kind of religious and spiritual significance are often referred to as
rituals. There are ceremonies that include certain ritualistic aspects. You looked at examples from
Tibetan Buddhism
,
Hinduism
,
Islam
, and
Judaism
. Pilgrimages, such as the Hajj or the
Kumbh Mela, are very public festivals, whereas there are some ritual actions that are reserved for
a particular subset of a religious community. You also learned about the festival of lights called
Diwali in Hinduism, and the tradition of breaking the glass in a Jewish wedding as a way of
maintaining community cohesion in light of the loss of the temple in Jerusalem.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Pilgrimage
A journey undertaken by a believer that has a sacred purpose and/or a sacred destination.
Ritual
"Sacred action"; a set of words or actions that are spoken or conducted in the same or in a
similar way over time, according to accepted religious, social, or other convention.
1. Oral Tradition
One of the most universal means of transmission is
oral tradition
. Every religion has oral
tradition as a part of its foundation.
IN CONTEXT
A good example of this is in Christianity, with regard to the life of Jesus Christ. There
was no written record of the life of Jesus until 20 years after his death. Therefore the
story of his life, all of his teachings, the story of his death, and the story of his
resurrection depended upon individuals and communities sharing the word that they had
heard and remembered in addition to their experiences.
term to know
Oral Tradition
The practice of teaching important religious or other doctrine verbally, without writing it
down.
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Christianity as a religious tradition developed and identified itself along the lines of oral
tradition. These stories as they were told and later written down became known as the Gospels—
the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Together they form the first part of
the Christian Bible, the New Testament. In a service or a religious teaching, the words of the
Bible are generally referred to as
scripture
.
term to know
Scripture
Any text held in reverence by any religious group.
Oral tradition has moved into written form to become a sacred text in some of the other religions
as well. In the case of Islam it forms a central foundation in its teaching. It is believed that the
prophet Muhammad, the historical figure Muhammad, was visited by the angel Gabriel with the
words of God, Allah. These words form the central sacred text of Islam, called the Qur'an.
It is
believed that Muhammad had direct communication with Allah; he had a divine revelation. The
words from Muhammad’s mouth were written down on the spot, a case of oral tradition and
sacred text being almost simultaneously formed.
did you know
The other central text in Islam is called Hadith. It’s a collection of sayings and actions
and teachings that are attributed to Muhammad, and they were written down only after
his death.
In the Judaic tradition, it was Moses who had direct contact with God. These words of God were
written down as the Torah, or the five books of Moses that form the Hebrew Bible. This is also
the Christian Old Testament.
did you know
Concurrent with the written Torah, there is the oral Torah, believed to have been given to
Moses at the same time. The oral Torah provides definitions, explanations, and
instructions of the written Torah, and is passed from generation to generation. Eventually,
it was written down and preserved in the form of the Talmud, a central, sacred text in
Judaism.
In the East, oral tradition is also a significant part of the Buddhist tradition. The oral teachings of
the Buddha are known through the sutras, which translates to “the threads that hold things
together.” The sutras are often memorized or encanted by Buddhist monks. They form the central
sacred text in Buddhism called the Pali Canon. The Pali Canon also contains explanations of the
direct teachings of the Buddha.
However, oral tradition doesn’t necessarily stop when it is written down. There’s a dynamic
interplay between the oral tradition and the sacred text. To understand that, you need to look at
other forms of transmission that support this relationship between the original oral tradition and
the sacred text.
2. Other Traditions of Transmission
When you hear the word tradition, do you think of history and something that stretches back in
time?
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This is often the case, but in order for a religious tradition to be alive and present in a culture,
certain practical methods of transmission have to be engaged. In order for the public to have
access to the sacred principles of a religion, certain communication methods have to be used.
The public engagement with oral tradition and sacred text takes place in the context of a religious
service, known as the
liturgy
. The liturgy is a communal recognition of the tradition and is
expressed through prayer, storytelling, readings from sacred text, singing, ritual silence, and
other more celebratory rituals, such as a marriage ceremony.
term to know
Liturgy
The manner in which a particular religious group conducts public worship.
Every religious tradition has its own expression of liturgy. There are forms of transmission that
are held in common, such as
preaching
. In Buddhism, one method of preaching is done through
Dharma talks, discussions, readings, and insights into the human condition. In Christianity, a
preacher delivers a sermon, which is a public teaching that includes references and readings from
scripture. It also gives advice, guidance, and encouragement to the congregation or gathering of
faithful believers.
term to know
Preaching
The act of transmitting moral or other teachings to those already within the same
religious group—contrast with evangelism.
Preaching gives us the best example of how oral tradition and sacred text support and depend
upon each other.
3. Works
Another example of a universal way of transmitting a teaching is in the form of works. This is
the idea of generating a positive intention and actually acting in the world in a beneficial way,
according to a teaching.
IN CONTEXT
In Buddhism there are many references to generating compassion and extending that out
from the practitioner to the world, to individuals, and groups. The term for this is Metta,
and it means “loving-kindness.” It’s a very conscious practice to help the practitioner not
only attain enlightenment but also to help others and alleviate suffering in the world.
4. Didactic Approaches
The oral traditions of sharing the teachings, the lessons, and the codes of conduct with references
and readings from sacred texts, is therefore extended and perpetuated through the support of the
liturgy. These more direct methods of communicating a religious teaching are called
didactic
approaches. These are methods such as Dharma talks, preaching, and sermons.
term to know
Didactic
Instructional, intended to educate.
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In Christianity the most traditional form of didactic instruction is evangelism.
Evangelism
is a
didactic method of preaching the Christian gospels with the goal of persuading the listener or
audience into the Christian faith. The intention is to convert non-believers to believe in the
divinity of Jesus Christ. When conversion includes services or material benefits, evangelism is
called
proselytism
.
terms to know
Evangelism
The attempt, usually through persuasive speech or writing, to convert non-believers to
one’s own religion—typical of most sects within Christianity.
Proselytism
The attempt by one or more members of any religious group to persuade others to
become members of that group.
The words evangelism and proselytism don’t actually appear in the Bible. Rather evangelists,
referring to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Saint Paul, traveled throughout the Roman Empire
preaching the gospel and establishing churches has they went. Evangelism then, is a form of
persuasive instruction unique to Christianity. Islam also has traditions of encouraging others to
join this faith.
think about it
Why is this unique to Christianity and Islam?
The reason for this is that in these two religions it is generally believed that non-believers
will somehow suffer in some way in the afterlife. Judaism, on the other hand, doesn’t
have a tradition of evangelizing or proselytizing. Jews don’t believe that Jesus is the
Messiah. Their religion is firmly held and established. There’s no news to report, so to
speak, like in Christianity, with the radical appearance of the divine in human form. It’s
prescribed in scripture and is a very common method of persuasive conversion in some
Christian and Muslim communities.
In Buddhism, there is no tradition of evangelism. If conversion were to occur, it’s usually the
result of Buddhist monks who demonstrate their beliefs and principles through their behavior and
through a peaceful exchange with people. In Christianity and Islam, the practice of evangelism
reaches far back to the earliest roots of the oral tradition.
5. Religious Holidays and Observances
There are two methods of transmission that are universal across all religions. These are religious
holidays and religious observances. The recognition of important holidays and observances that
mark historical events allows the faithful to observe certain codes of conduct that are contained
in the teachings.
When a family, a community, or a culture gathers together to share and re-tell the stories of their
religion, that tradition is brought into the present, continually extending the line of transmission.
summary
Oral tradition
is one of the most universal means of transmission of religion. Every religion has
oral tradition as a part of its foundation. Sacred texts such as the New Testament, the Qur’an, the
Hadith, the Torah, the Talmud, and Pali Canon are all based on oral traditions.
Other traditions
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of transmission
include liturgy, preaching, and sermons.
Works
are another important mode of
teaching that involve acting in the world in a beneficial way.
Didactic approaches
include
evangelism and proselytism.
Religious holidays and observances
are a means of bringing
tradition into the present and extending the line of transmission.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Didactic
Instructional, intended to educate.
Evangelism
The attempt, usually through persuasive speech or writing, to convert non-believers to
one's own religion--typical of most sects within Christianity.
Liturgy
The manner in which a particular religious group conducts public worship.
Oral Tradition
The practice of teaching important religious or other doctrine verbally, without writing
them down.
Preaching
The act of transmitting moral or other teachings to those already within the same
religious group--contrast with evangelism.
Proselytism
The attempt by one or more members of any religious group to persuade others to
become members of that group.
Scripture
Any text held in reverence by any religious group.
1. Secular vs. Religious Narratives
There are many narratives that are not religious. Instead they contain stories, perhaps actual
histories, of the lives of cultures and societies. These
secular
narratives are not intended to
portray a religious tradition in any direct way as the religious narratives generally do. Certainly
religious themes might be present within the secular narrative, but this is not the purpose or the
approach of secular narratives.
term to know
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Secular
Worldly, not spiritual.
think about it
What is a secular narrative?
You might think of the traditional historical narrative that recounts the events of different
cultures’ struggles for and fights for independence, such as the American Revolutionary
War.
Both secular and religious narratives often have universal themes that don’t necessarily know
any boundaries. In spite of the unique elements that are specific to each religion, there’s often no
distinction between themes. These themes apply to many different traditions and cultures.
The religious themes that are common have to do with subjects such as where humanity came
from and what role God plays in the unfolding of the universe and human civilizations. Perhaps
the most universal theme of all is the belief that there is some very special relationship between
humanity and the sacred realm of the divine and transcendent.
2. Jewish and Christian Narratives
In the Jewish and Christian tradition, there is the fairly well-known creation story in the book of
Genesis, the book where Adam and Eve appear in the Garden of Eden.
In Judaism, the book of Genesis ends with the people of Israel who had descended into slavery in
Egypt, and there they await the arrival of Moses, who would lead them back to their promised
land, Canaan. This is their land of origin. The second book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian
Old Testament is the book of Exodus. This book narrates the story of Moses leading the Israelites
out of captivity and through the desert back to Canaan. The Ten Commandments are received by
Moses, and the foundation of Jewish law is further established. The subsequent stories portray
the establishment of civilization and the mandates of God.
3. Hindu Creation Narrative
In certain branches of Hinduism, there is the creation story that links divine Vishnu, the
incomprehensible transcendent being, with creation. His sport, folly, and love entailed
manifesting itself in the form of various avatars, such as Lord Krishna, and dispersing himself
throughout the universe. He is all pervasive and all encompassing. Creation represents his divine
will and expansion.
Which of the following statements about narratives is true?
summary
This lesson started out by distinguishing between
secular vs. religious narratives
. The
difference has to do with the approach and the intention of the story.
Religious narratives contain
themes that are related to the creation of the world, human beings, the establishment of
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civilization, and the role that God might play in that. Secular narratives have more to do with
things that are non-religious and related to subjects such as politics. One of the most well-known
creation stories in the West is the
Jewish and Christian narrative
of Adam and Eve in the book
of Genesis, the creation of the world, the creation of man and woman. This led to the casting out
of Man from the Garden of Eden. In Judaism, this lesson mentioned Moses leading the Israelites
back home, out from captivity in Egypt. You looked at a
Hindu creation narrative
of the
universe and the creation of the divine expansion of will, of Vishnu, into different aspects of the
universe. Many of the themes in religious narratives are universal across all traditions, namely
this belief that there is some special relationship between the created world and the un-created
creator or the divine. The purpose of religious narrative is to express that and maintain that kind
of connection with the transcendent through storytelling.
All of these stories maintain a link with the past, maintain a link with tradition and sacred
principles. The divine commandments that are part of these narratives have become a part of
civilization and a part of secular law in many cases.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Secular
Worldly, not spiritual.
. Genesis
Creation stories often address life’s
ultimate questions
that have broad application and many
possibilities. These are not questions about the nature of mundane things, such as a horse
(although mythologically, questions into the nature of a horse might be very interesting and
revealing) but are questions having to do with subjects such as where humanity came from. Are
we sparks of the divine like many of the religions put forth? What is the nature of this
relationship between the creator and the created? It was once so clear and apparently un-
muddled.
term to know
Ultimate Questions
Questions that aim not at a particular understanding but at a universal one; e.g., “What is
the nature of the universe?” is an ultimate question, whereas “What is the nature of a
horse?” is not.
In the Jewish and Christian tradition, there is a fairly well-known creation story in the book of
Genesis. This is the book where Adam and Eve appear in the Garden of Eden. According to this
story, God created heaven, earth, and Man in perfect paradise. At this time, everything is divinely
available, and the real toil of existence is yet unknown.
The tree appears, temptation arises, and the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good
and evil is consumed. God extends his judgment and punishment. Human existence is now under
the guidance of its own free will with the choice to follow one road or another.
Now in the world, in the midst of making decisions and acting for survival, humankind
manipulates, manufacturers, and creates its own world. Civilization, institutions, and
technology
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are created in application of our intellect. These tools will help us understand the nature of the
world, our life, and if we choose, the nature of God and the role that He might play in guiding
the work of technology.
term to know
Technology
The application of human intellect to the natural world.
In spite of the condemnation and suffering of punishment outside the eternal bliss of the garden,
Adam and Eve, representing humanity, build, grow, and wonder about it all.
2. Poiesis
Philosophy can help with understanding. It’s been said that philosophy is the handmaiden of
theology. The German philosopher Martin Heidegger in the 20th century had a lot to say about
technology and what it really means for us as a species.
In his book
The Question Concerning Technology
, he refers often to ancient Greek thinking in
philosophy. In the context of understanding mankind’s ability to grasp the often confounding
relationship between essence and substance, he employs the Greek term “poiesis.” Poiesis
essentially means “to make.”
did you know
The word poetry comes from the term “poiesis.”
Poiesis is a verb that signifies a process of transformation or some kind of continuation of a
process. Heidegger uses it to explicate, or lay out, how human technology is a bringing forth of
something that has, up until now, been concealed or hidden. The goal might be to accurately
represent truth through this process of poiesis and technology.
Now, you can apply this philosophical interpretation and understanding of human technology to
the paradigm of the garden and humanity’s expulsion. You can see Adam and Eve toiling in the
mortal, earthly realm, constructing languages and cultures, towers of Babel, and everything else.
Technology is not, says Heidegger, a romantic longing for some past truth but an effort that
might accurately reveal truth through some very authentic process. He says it is the sober
readiness to be astounded before the coming of the dawn.
summary
This lesson started with the idea that creation stories offer a foundation for a religious tradition
and that they also offer the story of the development of civilization. The example used was from
the book of
Genesis
in the Jewish and Christian tradition. This is the story of Adam and Eve and
the creation of the world. It also tells of the subsequent responsibility that humanity is given once
cast out of the garden. The term
poiesis
was used to demonstrate this idea that mankind is
constantly creating something. Creation stories allow an insight into the purpose of technology,
the purpose of creating, and the purpose of doing in the world.
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1. Parables
A
parable
is a form of narrative, usually a shorter story, told for the purpose of teaching a
religious lesson, usually with a moral significance. So, it has a didactic intention and structure.
term to know
Parable
A story that typically aims to make a single teaching point rather than make an extended
comparison.
Judaism’s long tradition is no stranger to parables. They are called mashal or nimshal in Hebrew.
In the Torah, Solomon’s Song of Songs is a short, intense, and passionate book that uses the
allegory of the love between man and woman to communicate the boundless love between God
and the Israelites. It is written in the form of
poetry
. These parables are usually read during
Passover to celebrate the Jewish exodus from Egypt.
term to know
Poetry
Non-prose speech or writing that typically expresses ideas indirectly and metaphorically,
and/or uses specific forms of meter and rhythm.
In Christianity, parables were a common method of instruction and guidance in the teachings of
Jesus of Nazareth. In this context of Christianity, parables were also a safe way to communicate
controversial, even dangerous, ideas and themes. The broad message that Jesus was bringing to
the world suggested many challenges to the status quo. These included challenges to the idea of a
divine emperor ruling the state and challenges to the Jewish tradition.
did you know
One of these dangerous teachings was that Jesus was the son of God. In the Gospel of
John, it says: “Lord, we don’t know where you are going so how can we know the way?”
Jesus responds, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father
except through me.”
This idea that Jesus was the Christ, the Son of God, and could guide people to God was,
therefore, shrouded in a
prose
. It had to be covered, or shrouded, in a way that often took
the form parable.
term to know
Prose
Language that is written or spoken without poetic rhythm or structure.
IN CONTEXT
In the Christian Bible, in the book of Matthew, there is the parable of the sower. In this
parable, a planter goes out with his bag of seeds to his day’s work.
“And he spake many things unto them in parables, saying, behold, a sower went forth to
sow. And when he sowed, some seeds fell by the wayside and the fowls came and
devoured them up. Some fell upon stony places where they had not much earth. And
forthwith, they sprung up because they had no deepness of earth. And when the sun was
up, they were scorched. And because they had no root, they withered away. And some fell
among thorns and the thorns sprung up and choked them. But others fell into good
ground and brought forth fruit, some in hundredfold, some sixtyfold, some thirtyfold.
Who hath ears to hear, let him hear.”
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Each one of the settings where seeds fell—the wayside, the stony path, the thorn bushes,
and the good ground of fertile soil—represent some aspect of humanity:
There is the one that snatches up the truth without respect.
The second type is the one that finds joy in the truth but when challenged and
difficulty arises, they can’t stay with it for lack of roots.
Third is the one who hears the truth but is in the thorns, which represent worldly
preoccupation and vices, so the ears to hear are not available.
Finally, one hears, understands, and bears the fruit that yields a bounty.
The message, the didactic teaching, is that only those with eyes to see and ears to hear
will bear the fruit of salvation. Fertile soil symbolizes reception and perception of the
truth.
The didactic structure of parables uses one or more everyday situations as a port of entry for the
mystery.
2. Myths
Myth is a commonly held belief that has little rational justification. This means it is not provable
with empirical data; it’s neither rational nor irrational. Myths are not relics that have importance
only for history.
Many beliefs based on myth are part of spiritual and religious tradition, and they aren’t
necessarily provable in the usual sense of the word. They have more to do with collective
knowledge and wisdom based on non-rational or even extra-rational stories. Beliefs of this sort
often form the ground and justification for engaging with myths, such as creation stories.
big idea
This is the project of religion, you could say, to link the conscious realm of experience
and sensation with the deep forms of some essential truth. While these truths are, in the
usual sense, not provable, they are true from an anthropological, sociological, and
psychological perspective.
IN CONTEXT
Many of our commonly held beliefs might be thought of as myths. A good example is a
line from Thomas Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence: “We hold these truths to
be self-evident that all men are created equal, endowed by their creator.”
These lines from the Declaration of Independence can’t be empirically proved. The idea
of equality can’t hold really, but this form of prose is a myth functioning as a spiritual
guide. It does this well beyond the context of just the Declaration of Independence, and it
points to the relationship between the idea of “self-evident” and “endowed by their
creator.” This myth is referred to as a guiding principle. It is built into personal and
political judgments for perhaps billions of people.
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3. Allegory
The last literary device to discuss is
allegory
. Allegory compares things that are usually thought
of as being dissimilar. It conveys its message by often referring to this dissimilarity, bringing
insight into the original situation.
term to know
Allegory
An analogy or illustration that draws comparisons between two apparently dissimilar
situations at many points, most often with the effect of casting the original situation in a
different light.
IN CONTEXT
A good example of this is from Buddhism. It’s called the allegory of Enyadatta.
She’s a beautiful woman who looks in the mirror one day to discover that she has no
head. She freaks out, running everywhere, asking people where it was and what happened
to it. Well, everyone told her not to worry, that it was right where it should be and has
been all along. She was still as beautiful as ever.
The allegorical symbol here is the head, which refers to her Buddha Nature, or her true
nature and perfection. Buddha Nature is a foundational principle in Buddhism. This
narrative, using allegory, is intended to bring attention to the truth that someone’s Buddha
Nature, their perfection, is always there even when they can’t see it.
summary
Parables
generally have the intention of teaching some kind of moral lesson, and are shorter
narratives. The parable of the sower was used as an example.
Myths
are of any length, but they
generally are non-rational. They form the foundation for many beliefs both religious and
nonreligious. You looked at an example from the Declaration of Independence and the idea of
equality. Lastly, you learned about
allegory
, which uses comparison to shed light on something.
It’s an extended comparison, intended to bring some kind of insight into the initial relationship.
The allegory of Enyadatta was your example.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Allegory
An analogy or illustration that draws comparisons between two apparently dissimilar
situations at many points, most often with the effect of casting the original situation in a
different light.
Parable
A story that typically aims to make a single teaching point, rather than make an extended
comparison.
Poetry
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Non-prose speech or writing that typically expresses ideas indirectly and metaphorically,
and/or which uses specific forms of meter and rhythm.
Prose
Language that is written or spoken without poetic rhythm or structure.
1. Revelation and Inspiration
Nearly every religion has some form of
revelation
that has informed its scriptures, customs, and
traditions. Those that don’t emphasize revelation as much might be considered religious or
spiritual philosophies, such as Taoism or Confucianism. These non-theistic religions are
generally based on certain principles that they understand to be universal and not revelation.
term to know
Revelation
In religious studies, a direct communication from God.
The concept of revelation refers to a form of direct communication from God to a human
recipient, usually through some intermediary. In most cases, what is communicated becomes
sacred text as it is written down. Revelation refers to the process whereby some truth of a divine
nature is revealed, received, and transmitted, usually in writing.
did you know
Angels are a type of intermediary often mentioned in the Abrahamic monotheistic
traditions.
Many of the world religions have several accounts of revelation, and they are treated with great
reverence by the community of religious adherents. These communications are an unusual and
unique form of religious narrative. They stand apart from other religious narratives that might be
considered divinely inspired. Revelations extend directly from God to man or woman. These
individuals, in turn, function as a mouthpiece for God. Usually, both revelation and inspiration
demand some kind of engagement from the community. These engagements are the unfolding
narratives of the various religions.
With revelations, a human is only a mouthpiece for God. The originator, authorizing the release
of divine truth, is God, and God is also the
author
. The words themselves, in both form and
content, are therefore usually believed to be divine.
big idea
The human intermediary is a mouthpiece and scribe only. You could say he or she is a
stenographer taking dictation.
term to know
Author
One who authorizes, permits, or approves; e.g., Christians believe that although human
hands wrote down the words in the Bible, God is its “author” and used human beings as
instruments in its writing.
The immediacy that this suggests, the direct link with something believed to be beyond and other
than human, sets it apart from divine inspiration. Someone divinely inspired is an interpreter of
truth that was revealed in some form at some time. The difference with divine inspiration is that
an additional process takes place. The human agent participates as a co-creator in the process of
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conveying the particular truth that’s being conveyed. In this sense, the religious narrative is
considered to be delivered indirectly.
2. Examples of Revelation
Spiritual revelations form the centerpiece of many religions. In Judaism there are numerous
examples of revelation. In the book of Exodus, God reveals himself to Moses in the burning
bush. God instructs him to lead the Israelites out from captivity in Egypt and back to their home
in Canaan, the promised land.
did you know
In the narrative on Mount Sinai, Moses is entrusted with the Ten Commandments directly
from God.
In Christianity, it could be said that the ultimate and supreme revelation of God is the person of
Jesus Christ. His life, teachings, death, and resurrection combined form the religious narratives
of the tradition. For Muslims, it is the prophet Muhammad, who received God’s final and
ultimate revelation through the angel Gabriel. This direct communication with God, or Allah, is
the Qur’an.
Among the Eastern religions, Hinduism has different categories of sacred text: Shurti and Smriti.
Smriti refers to “what is remembered,” and Shruti means “what is heard.” Certain texts are
believed to have been heard, or revealed, from a divine source.
summary
There is a difference between
revelation and inspiration
.
Divine revelation has to do with
communication between a divine source and a human recipient. The divine source is considered
the author of any spiritual text created in this way. With divine inspiration, on the other hand,
there is a co-creative process that occurs. Human agency is involved, and there is some kind of
interpretation of truth. You looked at
examples of revelation
in the Abrahamic traditions:
Judaism, and Christianity, and Islam. You also looked at Hinduism and texts that are categorized
according to whether they are remembered texts or whether they are directly revealed and heard
texts.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Author
One who authorizes, permits, or approves. E.g., Christians believe that although human
hands wrote down the words in the Bible, God is its "author" and used human beings as
instruments in its writing.
Revelation
In religious studies, a direct communication from God.
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1. Religious vs. Non-Religious Worldveiw
How do you see it? You might ask your friend a question like that, when there’s some ethical or
moral issue on the table. Your friend will probably have an opinion, based on their religious or
non-religious
worldview
.
term to know
Worldview
A wide, and usually all-encompassing, understanding of the nature of the world, divinity,
truth, and/or humanity.
Say this friend loves animals, but is not religious. He or she is against animal testing and might
act accordingly, perhaps signing a petition or making phone calls. He or she also becomes a
vegetarian to avoid harming or killing animals.
On the other hand, if your friend was religious, he or she might be a vegetarian because his or
her religion prohibits killing and harming animals. All of these examples might play a part in a
person’s world view.
big idea
The underlying principle of respect and non-cruelty will not just inform the person’s
decision to buy soy protein and seaweed instead of chicken. It’s likely to extend into
other areas of life such as the treatment of friends, family, and other people.
To look at an example from Islam, many Muslims believe in the Supreme sovereignty of Allah.
In the Qur’an it says, none can command except Allah. Only a special advocate inspired by the
divine truth of Allah is given the power to rule. The Qur’an says, “Oh Allah, Lord of power and
rule, thou givest power to whom thou pleasest.”
2. Divine and Human Agency
When faced with various obstacles and challenges in life, any person with a religious worldview
is going to express faith in the process of divine providence.
IN CONTEXT
There’s a saying in Arabic: “Insha’Allah” or “God willing.” It could be
said that this reflects the complete belief and trust in Allah. It shows Allah guides,
controls, and governs every aspect of life. All of causality is Allah. This leaves human
agency at a relative loss.
Someone with a non-religious worldview may have an optimistic or pessimistic view of things.
This person might not doubt the efficacy of human agency in terms of cause-and-effect
relationships.
think about it
How might having a religious worldview promote hope or fatalism?
It’s interesting to consider how the idea of divine agency might place more or less
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emphasis on trust and acceptance of fate. The phrase “God willing” might be interpreted
as a sound of hope or as an expression of resignation or fatalism. It also might be viewed
as neither.
From some perspectives or worldviews, it might seem that Buddhist and Hindu approaches to
suffering reveal a sort of passive fatalism, given the profound acceptance of suffering as a core
truth of existence. Suffering is seen as something that dominates reality. This is part of the
worldview of Buddhism, and suffering is the first Noble Truth.
There is also a fatalistic approach to evil. Evil is present because of this problem of suffering.
There is nothing a person can really do about it. The subtleties of activity and passivity that this
suggests are best explored from within the particular worldviews or religious worldviews.
summary
A worldview is a wide and usually all-encompassing understanding of the nature of the world,
divinity, truth, and/or humanity. This view most likely affects every action, every decision, every
aspect of one’s life. Having a
religious vs. non-religious worldview
can lead to different
decisions. This is because these different worldviews can lead to different beliefs regarding
divine and human agency
.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Worldview
A wide, and usually all- encompassing, understanding of the nature of the world, divinity,
truth, and/or humanity.
1. Animism
The word “animism” comes from the Latin term
anima
, which means “soul” or
life force
.
Animism is the belief that all living things are endowed with a
spiritual essence.
Plants and
microscopic life are included sometimes. Even inanimate objects are sometimes filled with the
animating force of life, according to some animistic beliefs. One distinctive feature of animism is
that there is no separation, no distinction between the realms of matter and the realms of spirit.
terms to know
Anima
In animism, that which enlivens and gives character to plants, animals and (sometimes)
physical objects.
Life Force
That which imparts life, spirit, and/or soul.
Spiritual Essence
That which expresses the true nature of a person, place, or thing.
2. Eastern Religions
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Animism is present in many of the religions of the world. In certain Hindu traditions, there’s a
practice of sacrificing the spirit of the rooster through offering its blood in sacrifice to particular
gods.
The traditional Japanese religion called Shinto has many animistic features also. Many Shinto
shrines incorporate natural structures, such as mountains or trees, with kami that are honored and
revered.
did you know
The Japanese word “kami” refers to divinity, animal spirits, all natural forces, and also to
the general category of essence.
There are elements of animism also in the religion of Jainism. Practitioners practice extreme
nonviolence and self control as a principle means of spiritual freedom and spiritual liberation. All
forms of life—animal, plant, down to the microscopic level—possess souls, according to the
cosmology of Jainism.
3. Paganism and Pantheism
Many ancient and contemporary traditions are categorized as pagan religions or paganism.
Animism is a central feature here as well. All of nature is believed to be inseparable from the
spirit realm. Deity infuses nature, and therefore there’s no distinction.
did you know
Within contemporary paganism, there are at least two different perspectives on animism.
In one case, it’s believed that a spiritual energy resides in every aspect of the universe. In
other cases, some pagans believe that there are very specific spirits that dwell in
particular places, such as natural structures, which can be engaged and communicated
with through things such as rituals, prayers, and ceremonies.
Pantheism is the idea that a divine spiritual force or god is omnipresent in the created world of
matter and therefore resides in every aspect of life in the universe. Pantheism is a way of
thinking about the sacred that, like animism, can also often be applied to paganism.
One difference between pantheism and animism is that, usually, pantheists believe in an all-
present and immanent divine, whereas animism doesn’t necessarily have specific notions
regarding the nature of divinity per se. The foundational structure of animism has more to do
with primal spirits differentiated by the form of life that they inhabit.
summary
In this lesson, you looked at
animism
in three
Eastern religions
: Hinduism, Shinto, and Jainism.
Animism,
paganism and pantheism
are religious worldviews in which nature is generally
thought to be inseparable from the divine. Then you distinguished between pantheism and
animism in terms of how deity is understood.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
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Terms to Know
Anima
In Animism, that which enlivens and gives character to plants, animals and (sometimes)
physical objects.
Life Force
That which imparts life, spirit, and/or soul.
Spiritual Essence
That which expresses the true nature of a person, place, or thing.
1. Meaning and Usage of Monotheism
As with many concepts in the study of religions, it’s very helpful to use etymology, or the study
of word roots, to get a deeper insight into the meaning of the terms we use.
The English word “monotheism” comes from two Greek words: “mono,” meaning “one,” and
“theos,” meaning “god. Thus the word
monotheism
means the belief that only one god exists.
term to know
Monotheism
The belief that only one god exists.
There are many references to monotheism and the monotheistic tradition throughout the study of
religions, but the term usually refers to the three Abrahamic religions:
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
did you know
There are other traditions that would technically be grouped under
monotheism
, but they are
not in the Abrahamic tradition. Some examples of these traditions would be African tribes
such as Maasai in East Africa and the Himba people of Namibia.
2. Evolution of the Abrahamic Religions
Before the emergence of YHWH, the unspeakable name for the one God of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, the tribes of Canaan in Mesopotamia had many gods.
It is believed that eventually a deal was struck between the god El and the people that lived in
and around Mesopotamia and Canaan. In exchange for security and protection from other tribes,
the Canaanites agreed to worship no other gods but El.
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At some point in the second millennium before the common era, it is also believed that a
covenant or agreement was made between Abraham and YHWH, and Abraham thus sets off for
the promised land of Canaan.
did you know
The Hebrew word YHWH, written in biblical Hebrew without any vowels, is sometimes
called the tetragrammaton, which means four-letters. Yahweh and Jehovah are
pronunciations of this word often used by Christians, but Jewish tradition holds that it is
forbidden to pronounce this word. Because of this, YHWH is called by different names
including Elohim, Hashem, and Adonai, but this doesn’t conflict with the radical or strict
monotheism that is characteristic of Judaism
In the book of Genesis, it says, “To your offspring I will give this land.” The book of Genesis is
in the Torah, which is also called the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. This
statement begins the Abrahamic journey all the way through Christianity and Islam.
3. Relationship among the Abrahamic Religions
In the order of the three Abrahamic religions, Christianity comes second historically, yet the
relationship among all these faiths is very complex because of a weaving of similarities and
differences.
One aspect that Judaism and Islam have in common is that they both follow a very strict
monotheism when compared to the Trinitarian monotheism of Christianity.
Among Christians in general, there is the belief in the doctrine of the Trinity, which refers to God
existing as one God in three divine persons, or hypostases:
Father
Son
Holy Spirit
While for Christians this in no way compromises His unity and role as the single God of the
faith, some Muslims and Jews don’t agree that Christianity can technically be called a
monotheistic religion because of this.
Additionally, Islam and Judaism also both deny the resurrection of Jesus. Judaism regards him as
a wise teacher, but not as prophet or messiah, while Islam generally considers him a true prophet,
second in importance only to Muhammad, but whose message became corrupted.
Although Judaism and Islam share a strict monotheism, Islam calls God by the name Allah,
because this is the Arabic word for God.
summary
In this lesson, you learned about the
meaning and usage of the term monotheism
.
Monotheism simply means the belief that there is only one god. The term applies not only
to the Abrahamic traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam but also to some of the
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African tribal religions.
You also learned about the historical
evolution of the Abrahamic religions
, as well as
the
relationship among these religions
. There are some similarities and differences
between the three Abrahamic faiths, including the different protocols for using the name
of God in various contexts. Yet perhaps the most notable distinction between Christianity
and the other two Abrahamic religions is the idea of three divine persons of God. This
form of monotheism is considered a Trinitarian monotheism, which is quite different
from Islam and Judaism.
Source: Adapted from Sophia tutorial by Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Monotheism
The belief that only one god exists.
Glossary
1. The Difference between Theism and Deism
Theism
comes from the Greek word meaning God, “theos.”
Deism
comes from the Latin word
“Deus,” which also means God. They both refer to some kind of understanding of the
relationship to the divine.
terms to know
Theism
The belief in a personal god who seeks to have a personal relationship with all or some
human beings.
Deism
The belief in an impersonal god who created and oversees the universe but who neither has
nor desires to have a personal relationship with human beings.
Very generally, theism is usually applied to both monotheistic and polytheistic systems. Deism is
most often used in reference to monotheistic systems. However, it can apply to polytheism as
well. A term that was coined in the early 20th century is polydeism, and it’s usually referred to as
a subcategory of polytheism.
Theism is the belief in a personal god who seeks to have a personal relationship with all or some
human beings. This can be either a direct or an indirect relationship. Deism, on the other hand, is
the belief in an impersonal god who created and oversees the universe but who neither has nor
desires to have a personal relationship with human beings.
big idea
The key component is a personal relationship or no personal relationship.
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2. Newtonian Deism
Christianity is a theistic religion. It’s a monotheistic religion based on the belief in one God who
created the world and influences its processes. The direct or indirect involvement He may have
with individuals depends on the perspective of different branches of Christianity.
The term deism began to be applied to Christianity around the beginning of the Scientific
Revolution, the Age of Reason, and Enlightenment. It was a time when human rationality,
ingenuity, and agency were beginning to take more center stage. In the field of religion,
particularly among Protestant thinkers in northern Europe and England, the term deism was
applied.
The general belief that was shared among deists was that God still functioned as an omnipotent
creator but that he was more of a grand architect or divine watchmaker. All the pieces were put in
place and natural laws keep things running. These laws were being explained by Newtonian
science, and this form of deism became known as Newtonian deism. The thinking went that it
was up to humans, with the agency of science and reason, to explain and experiment with these
laws.
3.Jeffersonian Deism
One of the experiments was American democracy. Thomas Jefferson and the other founding
fathers of the United States had various commitments to the ideals of deism. This form of deism
is slightly different from the watchmaker god of Newtonian deism in that it ascribes to a belief in
divine Providence.
This was the idea that God is invested in and supports worthy causes that are moral and just,
such as American independence from Great Britain. Because a deistic worldview was closely
associated with enlightenment philosophy, Thomas Jefferson and others could support the idea of
religious freedom and certain forms of individualism that were important in this emerging
context. This became known as Jeffersonian deism.
4. Vaishnavism
Theism is predominantly applied to the Western monotheistic religions, but the more you
explore, the more you’ll see that it’s not always that cut and dry. There are Eastern religions that
are theistic, such as some branches of Hinduism.
Vaishnavism is a founding branch of India’s indigenous Hindu religion. Followers of
Vaishnavism are devoted to the personal god Vishnu and his avatar or manifestation, Krishna.
Vaishnavism has a very colorful cosmology in which Lord Vishnu’s divine work and
personalities are happily involved in the universe, the world, and the lives of devotees.
summary
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The difference between theism and deism
is whether there is a personal relationship or no
personal relationship with God. You looked at two examples of deism.
Newtonian deism
envisions God as a watchmaker or grand architect who sets things up and then allows
natural laws to function as they will.
Jeffersonian deism
is the idea that there’s some
kind of divine Providence where God is invested in worthy, just, and moral efforts, such
as the American independence from Great Britain.
Vaishnavism
is a branch of Hinduism,
and was used as an example of theism in the East.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Deism
The belief in an impersonal god who created and oversees the universe, but who neither has
nor desires to have a personal relationship with human beings.
Theism
The belief in a personal god who seeks to have a personal relationship with all or some
human beings.
1. Polytheism
Polytheism
is the belief in more than one god or goddess. The word is formed from two Greek
words: “poly,” meaning “many,” and “theoi,” meaning “gods.”
term to know
Polytheism
The belief that more than one god exists
Most religions that are polytheistic, such as some branches of Hinduism, believe that each god or
goddess has a particular domain of responsibility and influence within which to exercise their
powers. Their powers are specifically tailored to that domain.
did you know
The Hindu goddess Lakshmi is the goddess of spiritual and material wealth and
abundance.
Polytheism is a type of theism that is contrasted with monotheism, the belief in one supreme
deity or god. There are polytheistic religions that are practiced today, such as Hinduism. In
history, there have been many. Some of the classical religions of Greece and the Norse religions
of Scandinavia are examples of polytheistic traditions that are mostly not practiced anymore.
did you know
Hinduism, while ancient, is classified as a living religion. You can include the ancient
indigenous religion of Japan, called Shinto, and Taoism in China in the living religion
category. Together they have approximately 500 million adherents.
2. Henotheism
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Henotheism
, like the word polytheism, has a Greek origin. It also refers to the belief in one god.
However, it admits the possible existence of other gods. It doesn’t actively deny the presence of
other divine forces and their possibility. It doesn’t deny that they might deserve credit and
recognition in the merit of worship.
term to know
Henotheism
The belief that one god exists as primary, but that other gods may exist who are worthy of
worship—most notable in Hinduism.
In some cases with the derivative subcategory of henotheism known as kathenotheism, this
heartily affirms more than one god but only one at a time, as the Greek terms “kath'” and “hena”
suggest.
did you know
Both of these terms, henotheism, and kathenotheism, were coined by the German
philosopher Friedrich Schelling in the late 18th century.
Many scholars have categorized and described Hinduism as an example of polytheism. However,
given the many nuances and the subtleties of the tradition, the term henotheism has become an
acceptable and accurate description. Schelling applied the term to Hinduism, finding that it
addressed the nuance of the monotheistic tendencies of certain Hindu traditions.
Many branches of Hinduism honor one supreme deity or god while at the same time recognizing
their avatars or manifestations by other names. In general, it is agreed that the term henotheism
addresses religions in their early phases of monotheism. This is true with Vaishnavism. This
branch of Hinduism is sometimes thought to be a more recent expression of Hinduism’s
underlying monotheistic orientation, in this case, with Vishnu as the supreme deity.
summary
Polytheism
is the belief that there is more than one god or goddess. Hinduism is a living
example of this. Some branches have monotheistic tendencies.
Henotheism
is the belief that
there is one primary god that is venerated, and at the same time, there are other gods or
manifestations also recognized. In a way, it’s a form of polytheism.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Henotheism
The belief that one god exists as primary, but that other gods may exist who are worthy of
worship--most notable in Hinduism.
Polytheism
The belief that more than one god exists.
1. Arguments for Atheism
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The definition of
atheism
suggests that there is some manner of commitment to the idea that
there is no God. This is often to the extent that it might form a person’s worldview, affecting
many areas of his or her life. What would the reasons be for adopting an atheistic worldview?
term to know
Atheism
The belief that god does not exist.
One argument for atheism is that God is not provable or knowable through the senses. Another
points to evil. If there is a supposedly beneficent god, why would this god allow evil in the
world? The presence of evil is seen as proof of the absence of God.
One might also argue that, with the vast variety of religions in the world that in fact have logical
differences, all claiming the ground of universal truth, how can there be one universal, all-
encompassing truth? Science and certain rational arguments are leaned on in support of atheism.
Darwinism
could be used in such an argument. Darwinian evolution, according to some
interpretations, undermines the uniqueness of human beings.
term to know
Darwinism
The natural philosophy of Charles Darwin, most often associated with the theory of
evolution.
This theory of evolution effectively leaves space open to discredit the creation stories that are the
foundations of the different religions. Evolution, according to some definitions, fills the logical
gaps that many religions approach with a leap of faith.
2. Agnosticism
Agnosticism
is an approach to these arguments that does not exclude the possibility of the
divine. One might just not know and therefore subscribe to the belief that the existence of God
has not been proven or can never be proven.
term to know
Agnosticism
Either the belief that the existence of god(s) has not been proven, or the belief that the
existence of god(s) can never be proven.
summary
Atheism is a philosophy that is committed to the idea that there is no God. You looked at several
arguments for atheism
.
Agnosticism
is the idea that one just cannot know, and that it might be
impossible to know at all whether or not there is a God.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Agnosticism
Either the belief that the existence of god(s) has not been proven, or the belief that the
existence of god(s) can never be proven.
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Atheism
The belief that god does not exist.
Darwinism
The natural philosophy of Charles Darwin, most often associated with the theory of
evolution.
. Non-Religious Beliefs
In the study of religions, you will come across terms and ideas that avail themselves to many
different interpretations. You saw this when looking at theism. It’s not always clear which
religions might fit best into this category.
This is true for non-religious beliefs. The belief that there is no God is a non-theistic belief.
Atheism is a committed position ascribing to the belief that God doesn’t exist. It can securely be
put under
non-theism
.
term to know
Non-theism
Any system of belief that either denies the existence of god(s) or does not require the
existence of god(s).
Agnosticism, on the other hand, is a position that often refers to the idea that the existence of
God has never been proven and/or admits of the impossibility of ever knowing for sure about the
existence of God. It would also be a non-theistic approach.
Another more formal method of thinking about religious beliefs is
religious skepticism
. This
might be harder to group clearly into one camp or another, theism or non-theism. A religious
skeptic would like to subject certain religious beliefs to rational scrutiny, perhaps even his or her
own beliefs. So, he or she might be a believer, a faithful adherent of one religion or another.
term to know
Religious Skepticism
The belief that religious claims are doubtful or at least need to be subjected to intense
rational scrutiny.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, skepticism employed the tools of reason and science, which really
knew no bounds. If there was doubt, it often had to do with the notion that God was personally
involved in human lives and individual personal lives. For this reason, many Deists were
religious skeptics, questioning and exploring new possibilities with regard to the web of religion
and philosophy and socio-political life.
2. Non-Theistic Religions
When it comes to specific religions themselves, there are many that don’t honor or worship a
particular deity. Confucianism, Taoism, and many schools of Buddhism are good examples of
non-theistic thought, non-theistic religions. They generally fit more clearly into non-theism.
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Although it doesn’t have a god who is worshipped in the way a Hindu god is revered and
worshipped, Buddhism’s founding principles are nevertheless related to ideas of the non-material
and ideas of the sacred. In other words, its focus is on consciousness and the spiritual life that
allows for integration of matter and spirit and the possibility of transcendence. For this reason,
Buddhism has historically been approached and interpreted from a variety of angles.
summary
Now we can review and summarize. Non-theism is a very broad category, and there are many
non-religious beliefs
that can be grouped under it. Some schools of thought are agnosticism,
atheism, and religious skepticism. There are also many
non-theistic
religions that can be
considered, such as Buddhism.
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ted Fairchild.
Terms to Know
Non-theism
Any system of belief that either denies the existence of god(s) or does not require the
existence of god(s).
Religious Skepticism
The belief that religious claims are doubtful or at least need to be subjected to intense
rational scrutiny.
TEST
Identify which of the following statements is true of deism.
It is the belief in a personal god.
It is the belief in a non-personal god.
It is the belief that God is human.
It is the belief in a god who has a relationship with human beings.
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Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are all considered monotheistic religions.
What distinguishes the Christian Trinitarian conception of God with Jewish and Islamic
conceptions of God?
Nothing, all three religions have the exact same conception of God.
Most Christians believe that God revealed His message to human prophets, unlike Jews and
Muslims.
Most Christians believe there are actually three distinct gods.
Most Christians believe that God is one in three Divine Persons.
Which of the following is true of parables?
Parables are sometimes used to convey dangerous ideas.
Parables aim to make multiple teaching points.
Parables are most often used for the purpose of entertainment.
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Parables draw comparisons between dissimilar situations.
Which of the following is true of the term "worldview?"
A worldview may be either religious or nonreligious.
Only religious followers form a worldview.
A religious worldview cannot influence every area of life.
Only the nonreligious can have a worldview.
Which of the following describes the Christian view of the Trinity?
God, the Father, is the most important person of the Trinity.
The Trinity is considered to be a mystery of the Christian faith.
Jesus, the Son, is the most important person of the Trinity.
The Trinity was established by Jesus during his time on Earth.
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Which of the following is true of pantheism?
Pantheism is the belief in one omnipotent and personal God.
Pantheism is the belief that the divine is embedded in nature.
Pantheism is a religion practiced only in ancient times.
Pantheism is the belief that God takes an animal form.
Which of the following could best be described as henotheistic?
Islam
Hinduism
Shinto
The Norse pantheon
Which statement reflects a belief about death held by Christianity?
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One communicates with their descendants in the afterlife.
Suffering is extinguished in the afterlife.
One may go to heaven in the afterlife.
Nirvana is reached in the afterlife.
Which of the following is an accurate description of atheism?
The belief that a person cannot know if there is a god
The belief that God exists but does not answer prayers
The belief that there is no god
The belief that God is malevolent
What is the purpose of contemplative prayer in Christianity?
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To control your breathing
To confess one's sins
To get closer to God
To find a place of emptiness
Which following describes the meaning of “summum bonum?”
Christianity is superior to Judaism or Islam
The most true God
A life led in pursuit of the highest good
Love thy neighbor
Creation stories attempt to address __________ questions, such as, “Where did I come
from?” as well as questions of a more general nature pertaining to the emergence of
civilization and technology.
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poetic
mundane
answerable
ultimate
Which of the following is true of Lao Tzu?
He is the only Taoist to ever have achieved Wu Wei.
He is the main god of Taoism.
He is the founder of Taoism.
He is responsible for defining the Tao.
Which of the following is true of most Christian’s experiences with mysticism?
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Mysticism is a way to achieve union with God.
Mysticism is a way to achieve extinction.
Mysticism includes spirit possession.
Mysticism often includes drumming.
How is suffering viewed in Hinduism?
As a necessary part of all existence
As a good end in itself
As mandated by Brahman
As the just consequence of one's karma
Which statement is true of the definition of rituals?
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A ritual is believed to contribute to maintaining social and cosmic order.
A ritual explains the history of a religion.
A ritual is only given meaning if performed by a holy person.
A ritual is an action that only occurs in Western religions.
What is the term for the belief that all living (and many non-living) things have a spirit or
essence?
Spiritualism
Animism
Polytheism
Paganism
Which of the following is true of the transmission of religious teachings?
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Religious teachings can only be transmitted via books.
Religious teachings are rarely transmitted by proselytization.
Religious teachings cannot be transmitted by scripture.
Religious teachings can be transmitted by religious holidays.
Which of the following correctly describes the Advaita Vedanta?
The fundamental, true self that is shared collectively and binds the universe
The dualist school of thought within the Hindu tradition
The fundamental, true self that exists independent of other things, the individual soul
A Hindu philosophical system that says the individual soul is not separate from the supreme
eternal consciousness
Which of the following is a sacrament in Catholicism?
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Worship
Pilgrimage
Charity
Marriage
Which of the following best describes a revelation?
It is something authored by humans.
It is very similar to a myth.
It claims to be a direct form of communication from God.
It is a form of written communication.
Which of the following is true of the nature of religious narratives?
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Religious narratives share nothing in common with secular narratives.
The purpose of religious narratives is entertainment.
Religious narratives may offer an account of human origins.
Religious narratives explain why a person should be religious.
Which of the following is a “big question” that religions seek to answer, as described in this
course?
"What happens when people lose faith?"
"How can I fulfill every desire?"
"How do I convert others?"
"What happens after we die?"
Which of the following is true of the Buddhist view of sin?
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God commands his followers not to sin.
Sin alienates the sinner from God.
Sin arises from negative emotions.
Sin cannot be overcome.
Which of the following best describes YHWH?
The god of the Jews, who takes the form of other, lesser gods, such as Adonai and Hashem
The ancient god of the Jews, who is referred to in prayers by the name Yahweh
The monotheistic god of Judaism, who delivered Israel from Egypt
The Jewish god, whose name means “Divine Ruler”
Which of the following is true of Allah?
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While Muslims view Allah as the one true God, other demi-gods are described in the Muslim
holy texts.
While Muslims believe Allah is one God, the Qur'an refers to him by 99 names.
Islam is a monotheistic religion, and Allah is only known by one name.
Muslims view Allah as the supreme god, and he is known by five other names.
Which of the following ideas is a form of nontheism?
Monotheism
Polytheism
Henotheism
Atheism
Eastern religious traditions such as Hinduism and Buddhism hold that:
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evil actions disrupt our path to enlightenment.
evil is caused by the free will of human beings.
evil is not actually incompatible with an all-powerful, all-knowing, all-good God.
an existence without evil is impossible; therefore, it must be tolerated and accepted.
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