PSY 2037 - Chapter 1 Lecture(1)

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Chapter 1: Psychology Is a Way of Thinking PSY 2307 CHAPTER 1 IS DUE FRIDAY, OCTOBER 13, 2023, AT 11:59 PM, CST. 1

Outline • Research Producers, Research Consumers • How Scientists Approach Their Work − Scientists Are Empiricists − Scientists Test Theories − Scientists Tackle Applied and Basic Problems − Scientists “Dig Deeper” − Scientists Make It Public 2

For this brief activity, you will be presented with 5 statements about various psychological phenomenon that are either fact or fiction. See if you can correctly identify which are true and which are false! ** This activity will NOT be graded; it is simply designed to introduce you to some of the topics we will be discussing in further detail throughout the semester. ** 3

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Fact or Fiction? People who have few friends or lovers – and even those who simply live alone – have higher mortality rates (i.e., die sooner) than do those who are closely connected to caring others. 4 FACT . Having close relationships (e.g., friends/lovers) is associated with lower mortality rates compared to people who are lonely/lack significant close relationships. Depression, higher mortality, and poorer immune function are all associated with loneliness. 4

Fact or Fiction? Food tastes better when someone else prepares it. 5 FACT . When you make a meal yourself, you quickly become desensitized to the sights, sounds, and smells of the food which make it less exciting by the time you actually eat it. However, when someone else prepares food for you, those sights, sounds, and smells are still new, which ultimately enhances your dining experience. 5

Fact or Fiction? Most people (i.e., 78%) only use about 10% of their brains. 6 FICTION . We use virtually every part of the brain, and most of the brain is active almost all of the time – even when we engage in simple tasks. 6

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Fact or Fiction? Memories are more like fuzzy, pieced together puzzles than clear snapshots. 7 FACT . The brain generally remembers the gist of what happens, then fills in the rest – sometimes inaccurately – which is why two people can recall completely different memories of the same occurrence. 7

Fact or Fiction? People who have been diagnosed with a mental health disorder are more dangerous than the general public. 8 FICTION . Most people who have been diagnosed with a mental health disorder are no more likely to be violent than anyone else. In fact, people with severe mental illnesses are more likely to be victims of violent crime than perpetrators of it. 8

Introduction • We all have “common sense” ideas about how we think the human brain works • Myths about psychological processes can be misleading at best and damaging at worst • Learning Objective : Examine how to become a systematic and critical consumer of psychological science We all have “common sense” ideas about how we think the human brain works. Some may be true, others are not. Unfortunately, myths about psychological processes can be misleading at best and outright damaging at worst . If you are to think like a psychologist, then you must think like a researcher, and taking a course in research methods is crucial to your understanding of psychology. Therefore, the primary learning objective for Chapter 1 is to examine what it means to think like a researcher and become a systematic and critical consumer of psychological science. 9

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Research Producers, Research Consumers • Producers design, conduct, and disseminate research; consumers read about research and apply the findings • Psychologists are both producers and consumers of research • Producers and consumers are empiricists Some psychology students are fascinated by the research process and intend to become producers of research by designing and conducting their own studies and presenting their findings to the public. Other psychology students may not want to work in a lab, but they do enjoy reading about research and applying the findings in the real world. This type of student would be considered a consumer of research. In practice, many psychologists engage in both roles. When they are planning their research and creating new knowledge, they study the work of others who have gone before them. Research producers and consumers also share a commitment to the practice of empiricism – to answer psychological questions with direct, formal observations, and to communicate with others about what they have learned. 10

Why the Producer Role Is Important • Acquiring research skills is useful for coursework in psychology, for graduate school, or for working in a research lab • As an undergraduate, some psychology majors work alongside faculty as research assistants • Becoming a research producer deepens your understanding of psychological inquiry For your future coursework in psychology and for those of you who may have intentions to attend graduate school, it is important to know how to be a producer of research. As part of your psychology studies, you might even choose to work alongside faculty as research assistants in their lab. This can provide you with hands-on training on how to design and implement your own independent projects in the future. Ultimately, by participating as a research producer whether in undergrad or beyond, you can expect to deepen your understanding of psychological inquiry. 11

Why the Consumer Role is Important • Develop ability to understand, learn from, and critique research • Learn to distinguish trustworthy, reliable research information from “fake news” Although it is important to understand the psychologist’s role as a producer of research, most psychology majors do not eventually become researchers. Nevertheless, in this class and for your future classes, you will need to develop the ability to understand, learn from, and critique research. Most American consumers come across “research” everyday whether it be on the Internet, in magazines, popular press, or on news outlets. While some of the research is accurate and useful, some of it is just plain wrong. Understanding research methods teaches you how to distinguish trustworthy, reliable research information from “fake news” or “alternative facts.” 12

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How Scientists Approach Their Work 1. Scientists are empiricists 2. Scientists test theories 3. Scientists conduct basic and applied research 4. Scientists “dig deeper” 5. Scientists make their work public Psychological scientists are identified not by advanced degrees or white lab coats; they are defined by what they do and how they think. The rest of this chapter will explain the fundamental ways psychologists approach their work. First , they act as empiricists in their investigations, meaning that they systematically observe the world. Second , they test theories through research and, in turn, revise their theories based on the resulting data. Third , they take an empirical approach to both applied research, which directly targets real-world problems, and basic research, which is intended to contribute to the general body of knowledge. Fourth , they go further: Once they have discovered an effect, scientists plan further research to test why, when, or for whom an effect works. Fifth , psychologists make their work public: They submit their results to journals for review and respond to the opinions of other scientists. Another aspect of making 13

work public involves sharing findings of psychological research with the popular media, who may or may not get the story right. 13

Scientists Are Empiricists • Empiricism : Using evidence as the basis for conclusions • Aim to be systematic, rigorous, and independently verifiable • Do NOT base conclusions on intuition, experience, authority, or casual observations Empiricism , also referred to as the empirical method or empirical research, involves using evidence from the senses (sight, hearing, touch) or from instruments that assist the senses (thermometers, timers, photographs, weight scales, questionnaires) as the basis for conclusions. Empiricists aim to be systematic, rigorous, and to make their work independently verifiable by other observers or scientists. Most importantly, they do NOT base their conclusions on intuition, experience, authority, or casual observations. 14

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Scientists Test Theories: The Theory-Data Cycle • Theory : A set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another • Hypothesis : The specific outcome the researcher expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate • Data : A set of observations In the theory-data cycle, scientists collect data to test, change, or update their theories. A theory is a set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another. A hypothesis , or prediction, is the specific outcome the researcher expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate. Data are a set of observations. Depending on whether the data are consistent with hypotheses based on a theory, the data may either support or challenge the theory. Data that match the theory’s hypotheses strengthen the researcher’s confidence in the theory. When the data do not match the theory’s hypotheses, however, those results indicate that the theory needs to be revised or the research design needs to be improved. 15

The Cupboard Theory vs. The Contact Theory A classic example from the psychological study of attachment can illustrate the way researchers use the theory- data cycle to examine their research questions. You’ve probably observed that animals form strong attachments to their caregivers. If you have a dog, you know they’re extremely happy to see you when you come home, wagging their tail and jumping all over you. Human babies, once they are able to crawl, may follow their parents or caregivers around, keeping close to them. Baby monkeys exhibit similar behavior, spending hours clinging tightly to the mother’s fur. Why do animals form such strong attachments to their caregivers? One theory, referred to as the cupboard theory of mother-infant attachment, is that a mother is valuable to a baby mammal because she is a source of food. The baby animal gets hungry, gets food from the mother by nursing, and experiences a pleasant feeling (reduced hunger). Over time, the sight of the mother is associated with pleasure. In other words, the mother acquires positive value for the baby because she is the “cupboard” from which food comes. If you’ve ever assumed your dog loves you only because you feed it, your beliefs are consistent with the cupboard theory. An alternative theory, proposed by psychologist Harry Harlow (1958), is that hunger 16

has little to do with why a baby monkey likes to cling to the warm, fuzzy fur of its mother. Instead, babies are attached to their mothers because of the comfort of cozy touch. This is the contact comfort theory. (In addition, it provides a less cynical view of why your dog is so happy to see you!). Let’s watch this short YouTube clip to see how Harlow tested this theory. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcQg1EshfIE (0:00-2:11) 16

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Features of Good Scientific Theories • Good theories are… − Supported by data − Falsifiable − Have parsimony • Theories do NOT “prove” anything In scientific practice, some theories are better than others. 1. The most important feature of a scientific theory is that it is supported by data from research studies. In this respect, the contact comfort theory of infant attachment turned out to be better than the cupboard theory because it was supported by the data. Clearly, primate babies need food, but food is not the source of their emotional attachments to their mothers. In this way, good theories, like Harlow’s, are consistent with our observations of the world. More importantly, scientists need to conduct multiple studies, using a variety of methods, to address different aspects of their theories. A theory that is supported by a large quantity and variety of evidence is a good theory. 2. A second important feature of a good scientific theory is falsifiability. A theory must lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could actually fail to support the theory. Harlow’s theory was falsifiable: If the monkeys had spent more time on the wire mother than the cloth mother, the contact-comfort theory would have been shown to be incorrect. To be truly scientific, researchers must take risks, including being prepared to accept data indicating their theory is not supported. 17

3. A third important feature of a good scientific theory is that it exhibits parsimony. Theories are supposed to be simple. If two theories explain the data equally well, most scientists will opt for the simpler, more parsimonious theory. It is important to note that, theories do not prove anything. The word “prove” is not used in science. Researchers never say they have proved their theories. At most, they will say that some data support or are consistent with a theory, or they might say that some data are inconsistent with or complicate a theory. But no single confirming finding can prove a theory. New information might require researchers, tomorrow or the next day, to change and improve current ideas. Similarly, a single, disconfirming finding does not lead researchers to scrap a theory entirely. Harlow’s theory of attachment could not be “proved” by the single study involving wire and cloth mothers. His laboratory conducted dozens of individual studies to rule out alternative explanations and test the theory’s limits. 17

Scientists Tackle Applied and Basic Problems • Applied research : Research conducted in a particular real-world context • Basic research : Research conducted to enhance the general body of knowledge The empirical method can be used for both applied and basic research questions. Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind; the researchers conduct their work in a particular real-world context. Basic research , in contrast, is not intended to address a specific, practical problem; the goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge. Translational research is the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to health care, psychotherapy, or other forms of treatment and intervention. Translational research represents a dynamic bridge from basic to applied research. Simply put: Basic research asks, is this important and why? Applied research asks, how can I use this? 18

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Scientists “Dig Deeper” • Psychologists rarely stop after conducting only one study • Potential questions… − Why does this occur? − When does this happen the most? − For whom does this apply? − What are the limits? Psychological scientists rarely conduct a single investigation and then stop. Instead, each study leads them to ask a new question. Scientists might start with a simple effect, and then ask… 1) “Why does this occur?” 2) “When does this happen the most?” 3) “For whom does this apply?” 4) “What are the limits?” 19

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Scientists Make it Public • Publish research articles in peer-reviewed, academic journals • Journalists publish research articles in popular press outlets (e.g., Psychology Today , Buzzfeed , New York Times , etc.) • Research findings may be misinterpreted by public When scientists want to tell the scientific world about the results of their research, they write a paper and submit it to a scientific journal. Unlike popular newsstand magazines, the articles in a scientific journal are peer-reviewed. The journal editor sends the submission to three or four experts on the subject. The experts tell the editor about the work’s virtues and flaws, and the editor, considering these reviews, decides whether the paper deserves to be published in the journal. One goal of this textbook is to teach you how to interrogate information about psychological science that you find not only in scientific journals, but also in more mainstream sources that you encounter in daily life. Journalism, in contrast, includes the kinds of news and commentary that most of us read or hear on television, in magazines and newspapers, and on Internet sites — articles in Psychology Today, Buzzfeed, or the New York Times. Unfortunately, when scientific research gets published in popular press, the research findings have a greater likelihood of being misinterpreted by the public. The effects of a study may get distorted by the media and lead people to form false conclusions about the findings. 20

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In this video by John Oliver, at minutes 5:12 –7:24, there’s a description of how a study on the effects of eating chocolate during pregnancy was distorted by the press. To access the full post click here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Rnq1NpHdmw . The video requires signing onto YouTube (because of the “colorful language”). 21

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So, how do you think like a psychologist? • Thinking like a psychologist means thinking like a scientist • Learn to plan your own studies, find research, and interrogate information • Being a critical consumer is crucial for career paths in and outside of psychology So, how do you think like a psychologist? Thinking like a psychologist means thinking like a scientist. In this class, you will learn to plan your own studies, find research, and interrogate information. Being a critical consumer is crucial for career paths in and outside of psychology. 22

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Chapter 1 Key Concepts • Research Producers, Research Consumers − Producers − Consumers • How Scientists Approach Their Work − Empiricism − Theory-Data Cycle − Falsifiability − Basic and Applied Research 23

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