PSY 111 Haass

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111

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Psychology

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Feb 20, 2024

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Katelyn Haass Professor Dennis Kelly PSY 111 October 16, 2023 (A) Describe key principles of the perspective known as behaviorism: Behaviorism is a psychological approach characterized by its emphasis on scientific and objective methods of investigation. Its proponents, known as behaviorists, are primarily con- cerned with observable behaviors that can be studied through stimulus-response. When studying this psychological approach, it is crucial to consider several key principles. (Graham, 2023) Firstly, behaviorists firmly believe that all behavior is acquired through environmental in- fluences. This approach largely disregards the role of innate or inherited factors in shaping be- havior. In practical terms, behaviorism focuses on the process of learning. Adherents of this ap- proach contend that individuals are born as blank slates and acquire behaviors through their in- teractions with society at large. (Graham, 2023) Secondly, behaviorists maintain that there are minimal distinctions between human and animal learning. Consequently, behaviorist experiments can be conducted on animals, as they do not anticipate significant deviations in results from those obtained through direct testing on hu- mans. (Graham, 2023) Thirdly, behaviorists prioritize the study of observable behavior. Consequently, they allo- cate limited attention to analyzing internal events such as cognition or emotion. This is not to suggest that behaviorists deny the existence or significance of internal activities. Rather, they contend that the most effective means of scientifically and objectively measuring these activities is through their manifestation in behavior. (Graham, 2023)

(B) Design an experiment including the following terms: experimental and control group, operational definition, double blind, independent, dependent, and extraneous variables: Experiment: Can different colors cause physiological reactions? Experimental Group: A group of individuals who will view different colors. Control Group: A group of individuals who will not view different colors. Operational Definition: Several colors have been linked to physiological alterations, such as heightened blood pressure, increased metabolic rate, and ocular fatigue. Double Blind: The experimental group is not informed about the objective of the experiment, which aims to investigate the potential physiological responses elicited by various colors. Independent Variables: The colors are the independent variables in this experiment. Dependent Variables: The physiological reactions (heightened blood pressure, increased meta- bolic rate, and ocular fatigue) are the dependent variables in this experiment. Extraneous Variables: The age, gender, and demographic are just a few extraneous variables in this experiment. (C) Describe the structure of a neuron. How do neurons communicate with each other? What is the role of the neurotransmitter (include 3 neurotransmitters)? Neurons are responsible for transmitting signals throughout both the central and periph- eral nervous systems. Their primary function is to convey electrical impulses and chemical sig- nals to and from the brain. Typically, neurons consist of three distinct components: a cell body that houses the nucleus and cytoplasm, an axon that transmits information away from the nu- cleus, and dendrites that receive messages from other neurons. There are several types of neu- rons, including motor neurons, which transmit information to our muscles, sensory neurons,

which transmit information to enable our senses, and interneurons, which facilitate transmission between motor and sensory neurons. (© The University of Queensland, 2023) Neuronal communication is facilitated by electrical impulses known as 'action potentials' and chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. At the synapse, the point of contact between two neurons, the occurrence of an action potential triggers the release of a neurotransmitter by neuron A. (© The University of Queensland, 2023) Neurotransmitters are indispensable chemical mediators crucial for the proper function- ing of the human body. Their primary role entails the transmission of chemical signals, com- monly referred to as "messages," from one neuron, or nerve cell, to the subsequent target cell. This target cell may encompass another nerve cell, a muscle cell, or a gland. (© The University of Queensland, 2023) Glutamate, the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter within the central nervous sys- tem, holds the distinction of being the most abundant neurotransmitter in the brain. Its pivotal in- volvement in cognitive processes such as cognition, learning, and memory is well-established. Perturbations in glutamate concentrations have been linked to the pathogenesis of neurodegener- ative disorders including Alzheimer's disease, dementia, Parkinson's disease, and epileptic seizures. (© The University of Queensland, 2023) Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is widely recognized as the predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter within the central nervous system, specifically in the brain. Its primary function lies in the regulation of brain activity, thereby mitigating potential disturbances in various do- mains such as anxiety, irritability, concentration, sleep, seizures, and depression. (© The Univer- sity of Queensland, 2023)

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Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that functions as an inhibitor. Its role is to regulate various physiological and psychological processes, including mood, sleep patterns, sexuality, anxiety, appetite, and pain. Imbalances in serotonin levels have been linked to several disorders, such as seasonal affective disorder, anxiety, depression, fibromyalgia, and chronic pain. To address these conditions, medications that modulate serotonin levels have been developed, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). (© The University of Queensland, 2023) Dopamine, a neurotransmitter, assumes a pivotal role in the reward system of the human body, encompassing the experience of pleasure, heightened arousal, and the acquisition of knowledge. Moreover, dopamine facilitates focus, concentration, memory retention, sleep regu- lation, mood modulation, and motivation. Various disorders are linked to dysfunctions within the dopamine system, such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, restless legs syn- drome, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Furthermore, numerous highly ad- dictive substances, including cocaine, methamphetamines, and amphetamines, exert their effects by directly targeting the dopamine system. (© The University of Queensland, 2023) (D) Provide a description of a Type A personality and explain the link to Cardio Vascular Heart Disease. Explain coping strategies and provide five examples. The term "Type A" denotes a behavioral and personality pattern that is commonly linked to elevated levels of accomplishment, competitiveness, and impatience, among other attributes. Specifically, the favorable characteristics associated with a Type A personality encompass self- regulation, a drive to attain desired outcomes, competitiveness, and adeptness in multitasking. Conversely, the less desirable traits encompassed within the definition of a Type A personality include persistent competitiveness, impatience, aggression, and hostility. The phenomenon of

stress, commonly linked to individuals exhibiting "Type A" personalities characterized by traits such as competitiveness, urgency, and impatience, has been found to have detrimental effects on one's overall health. These effects manifest in various forms, including sleep disturbances, fa- tigue, and headaches. Moreover, stress has been identified as a potential catalyst for inflamma- tion within the body, including arterial inflammation, thereby leading to an elevation in blood pressure levels. Consequently, this heightened blood pressure poses an increased risk for the de- velopment of heart disease. (Petticrew et al., 2012) Heart disease, encompasses various illnesses that impact the functioning of the heart. Among these, coronary heart disease stands as the most prevalent form, characterized by the ob- struction of the heart's blood supply due to the accumulation of plaque or fatty substances. Con- sequently, it frequently leads to heart attacks. During the 1950s, Dr. Friedman and Dr. Rosenman postulated a potential association between individuals with "Type A" personalities and heart dis- ease. This hypothesis stemmed from the belief that the ambitious and competitive nature of "Type A" individuals rendered them more susceptible to stress compared to their "Type B" coun- terparts. However, subsequent research conducted in the 1990s revealed that the presence of coronary artery disease is primarily linked to stress rather than the specific personality traits as- sociated with the "Type A" classification, as stated by Dr. Oen-Hsiao. The potential association between organizational skills, timeliness, and the likelihood of developing coronary disease is not supported by scientific evidence. Personality type does not play a significant role in deter- mining the risk of heart disease; however, stress levels may have an impact. Interestingly, re- search conducted in the 1990s revealed that the initial studies linking "Type A" personalities to a higher risk of coronary disease were funded by tobacco companies. These studies aimed to estab- lish a connection between the health risks associated with smoking, particularly heart disease,

and individuals with "Type A" personalities, rather than attributing the risks solely to smoking it- self. This revelation raises skepticism and warrants further investigation. It is important to note that being driven, ambitious, and hardworking are generally positive traits. These characteristics alone do not necessarily contribute to an increased risk of coronary artery disease, as stated by Dr. Oen-Hsiao. However, excessive drive and competitiveness leading to chronic stress may be cause for concern in relation to heart health. (Petticrew et al., 2012) John Schaubroeck suggests that individuals with perfectionistic personality traits are more likely to exhibit hostile, impatient, and competitive behavior. To address this, individuals may need to alter their thought patterns to interpret potentially antagonizing situations in a more adaptive manner. One such strategy is distraction, which can be as simple as counting to ten or practicing deep breathing. Katherine Schafler posits that adopting a two-step approach, which in- volves leveraging perfectionistic traits to one's advantage and actively mitigating the negative as- pects of perfectionism, can facilitate significant transformations towards a more positive life- style. According to Schafler, individuals with unhealthy perfectionistic tendencies tend to con- template the ideal version of a relationship, whereas a more adaptive and healthier mindset in- volves considering the optimal version of a relationship that aligns with one's current life circum- stances. This personalized approach allows individuals to incorporate elements that are compati- ble with their lives and contribute to their happiness, thereby avoiding the trap of constantly pur- suing an insatiable desire for constant improvement and accumulation. In order to understand and address disappointment in a given situation, it is important to analyze the factors that con- tributed to the outcome. This involves not only acknowledging personal responsibility, but also considering external factors beyond one's control. This may be particularly challenging for indi- viduals with a type-A personality, as they tend to strive for perfection and exert control in all as-

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pects of their lives. Unhealthy perfectionists often blame themselves or others for not achieving their desired results, regardless of the feasibility or practicality of their goals. Instead, it is advis- able to seek external attributions in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of what tran- spired and why. This approach typically leads to a sense of disappointment accompanied by the recognition that not everything can be controlled. It allows individuals to learn from the experi- ence and make adjustments for future endeavors. Another strategy to cope with disappointment, as suggested by Schaubroeck, is to shift one's perspective from being the subject to becoming the object of a situation. This self-awareness can help individuals regain a sense of control over their emotions and enable them to respond more effectively. According to Schafler, individuals who exhibit unhealthy perfectionism view ideals as goals, whereas those who exhibit healthy perfec- tionism view perfection as a guiding principle rather than a final destination or directive. The purpose of ideals is to inspire, not necessarily to be achieved. However, when success is equated with perfection, one is bound to fall short. Schafler further notes that when an individual feels that nothing they do is ever good enough for themselves, this often leads to the belief that noth- ing anyone else does is good enough either. In order to effectively communicate, it is important to adapt one's style of communication. When individuals set high standards for themselves, it is common for those around them to be affected by their intense demeanor. However, they may not realize that their behavior is being perceived as intense, impatient, or angry. Upon recognizing this discrepancy, Schafler suggests employing compensatory strategies such as monitoring one's tone and incorporating expressions of warmth and consideration towards others. (Kaundinya, 2018)

(G) Define sensation and perception? What is transduction? Where does it occur with hear- ing and vision? Briefly explain the structures and process of vision. How does the brain “see”. Sensory receptors are a distinct class of neurons that exhibit selective responsiveness to particular categories of stimuli. The occurrence of sensation is contingent upon the detection of sensory information by these specialized receptors. Conversely, perceptions necessitate the cog- nitive processes of organizing and comprehending the incoming sensory information. To render sensations meaningful and purposeful, it becomes imperative to imbue them with significance, thereby engendering our perceptions of said sensations. Transduction constitutes the initial phase in the process of perception, serving as a translation mechanism whereby diverse cellular entities respond to external stimuli, thereby generating a signal that undergoes processing within the cen- tral nervous system, ultimately culminating in the formation of sensory experiences. (American Psychological Association, 2011) Transduction, the process of converting sound into an equivalent electrical waveform, takes place within the mechanoreceptive hair cells that are firmly attached to the organ of Corti. The immediate mechanical stimulus for this process is the displacement of the hair bundles as they come into contact with the acellular tectorial membrane located above them. (Fettiplace, 2017) Visual transduction refers to the intricate process occurring within the eye, wherein the absorption of light by the retina is transformed into electrical signals that eventually propagate to the brain. (© STANFORD MEDICINE CHILDREN’S HEALTH, 2023) Light enters the eye by traversing the cornea, a transparent, dome-shaped surface that en- velops the anterior portion of the eye. Subsequently, the light proceeds through the pupil, which

is regulated by the iris, the pigmented section of the eye, to control the amount of light entering. The light then encounters the lens, a transparent structure within the eye that concentrates light rays onto the retina. Following this, the light passes through the vitreous humor, a gelatinous substance that occupies the central region of the eye, aiding in maintaining its spherical shape. Ultimately, the light reaches the retina, a layer of light-sensitive nerves that lines the posterior as- pect of the eye. At this point, the image becomes inverted. The optic nerve is subsequently re- sponsible for transmitting these signals to the visual cortex of the brain. The visual cortex then processes these signals, converting them into discernible images, thereby facilitating our vision. (National Institutes of Health , 2020) The process of color perception in the brain relies on the detection of light signals by the cone photoreceptors located in the retina. These photoreceptors are capable of detecting light across a range of wavelengths, and there are three distinct types of cones that contribute to this process. The brain then integrates and classifies these signals to form a perception of color. How- ever, the precise mechanisms underlying this process remain poorly understood. (Tsuchitani, 2020)

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Citation Graham, G. (2023, January 13). Behaviorism . Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi- losophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/ Petticrew, M. P., Lee, K., & McKee, M. (2012, November). Type A behavior pattern and coronary heart disease: Philip Morris’s “ Crown jewel.” American journal of public health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC3477961/

© The University of Queensland. (2023, October 3). What is a neuron? . Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland. https://qbi.uq.e- du.au/brain/brain-anatomy/what-neuron Kaundinya, A. (2018, August 10). 5 ways to manage your type-A personality . The Cut. https://www.thecut.com/article/ways-to-manage-type-a-per- sonality.html Fettiplace, R. (2017, September 12). Hair cell transduction, tuning, and synaptic transmission in the mammalian cochlea . Comprehensive Physiology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5658794/ American Psychological Association. (2011, November). Sensation and per- ception a unit lesson plan for high school psychology ... https://www.a- pa.org/ed/precollege/topss/lessons/sensation.pdf © STANFORD MEDICINE CHILDREN’S HEALTH. (2023). Default - Stanford Medicine Children’s health . Stanford Medicine Children’s Health - Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital Stanford. https://www.stanfordchildren- s.org/en/topic/default?id=normal-vision-90-P02094 National Institutes of Health. (2020, November 16). Envision color: Activity patterns in the brain are specific to the color you see . National Insti- tutes of Health. https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/envi- sion-color-activity-patterns-brain-are-specific-color-you-see Tsuchitani, C. (2020, October 7). Visual processing: Eye and retina (section 2, Chapter 14) neuroscience online: An electronic textbook for the Neuro- sciences: Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy - the University of Texas Medical School at Houston . Visual Processing: Eye and Retina (Section 2, Chapter 14) Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences | Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy - The University of Texas Medical School at Houston. https://nba.uth.tm- c.edu/neuroscience/m/s2/chapter14.html

PSY 111 Haass

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