Week 8 - Final Project

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1 Running Head: TERRORISM CULTURE Upper Iowa University PA522-4A-71 – Psychology and Culture of Terrorism

2 The Psychology and Culture of Terrorism Introduction People open to terrorist enrollment and radicalization tend to feel distanced or disappointed, identify with the social injustice victims they fight, and believe that taking action is necessary instead of discussing the problem (DeAngelis, 2010). Also, the researchers determined that terrorist believes engaging in violence is not immoral, and their family or friends are sympathetic to the cause. Terrorist are told they will be offered a social and psychological reward for joining the movement. Beyond the terrorists’ individual characteristics, psychologists learned data at hand could assist in creating plausible interventions. For instance, the terrorist recruiters romanticized the cause and the promise of a glamorous lifestyle never comes to pass (DeAngelis, 2010). This paper will define terrorism, the impact of terrorism economically, and the psychology of why terrorists commit acts of violence. Defining Terrorism Terrorism is defined as using violence and threats for intimidating or coercing for political gain (Aronson, 2013). Many terrorism experts argue that terrorism stem from material deprival, globalization, and modernization problems, including threatening religious supremacy, and the challenges of traditional roles of families. Also, some terrorism experts argue the act of terrorism are tied to cultural, economically, and military resentment, particularly with the United States. Terrorism, in its multiple forms recently increased with several large-scales, coordinated attacks son people worldwide similar to the attacks on September 11, 2001, on the World Trade Center. The United States and other countries, including Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan face several waves of terrorist attacks.

3 Terrorism is viewed as an act of violence committed by a group of individuals known as terrorists who themselves as victims of some important historical wrong. These groups do not have ties with the governments, but usually have the financial and moral support of concerned governments. They mainly stage attacks and target civilians, airliners, public transportation, or public areas aiming to sow fear and confusion, cause harm, and to kill (Aronson, 2013). Most terrorist are well-educated and technology savvy to maneuver around without attracting attention in an alien society, which make it difficult to identify the terrorist. The terrorist groups prefer recruiting educated and skilled people to carry out their mission. Educated suicide-bombers are assigned important targets to kill more people, and they are less likely to fail or caught during attacks. The terrorist movements are highly populated with financially stable and educated members. The larger the terrorist group movement, the more their members are diverse with an educational background. The inevitable ramification mainly occurs across the terrorist movement where top leaders and mid-level command strata consist of educated and financial stable members. The foot soldiers are likely to be less educated and from a moderate socio-economic background. Engineering many times is the most influential vocation in the developing countries, and it makes sense for this generation of well-educated terrorists to focus unduly on that profession (Azman, 2012). Medicine is another popular subject among terrorists attending universities and its popularity surfaced during the botched attempt a bombing in London, and the attack of Glasgow’s International Airport. Most of the terrorists were doctors, medical students, or earned a doctorate in technology or design. Osama bin Laden’s deputy was a trained surgeon. Education is the key characteristics of Al-Qaeda and other activists and many times militancy is acquired through education, well-off, and gainfully employed (Azman, 2012).

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4 The potential area to tap into is to include examining the innumerable ways people join terrorist groups, whether it is a personal decision, or through recruitment. Also, how leaders influence people in their decision of adopting certain roles, for example by glorifying the suicide bomber role, and factors used to motivate people to leave. The hatred plays into plays into the hands of Al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups. The recruitment of terrorists is based on resentment and indoctrination, and in the Middle East, the present of American military forces, for example, has motivated some people to join terrorist groups to fight the invasion of Americans. Also, the Western forces actions have caused some Muslim men to join terrorist groups because they lost a family member as a result of war and harbor hatred against America and other Westerners. Also, some people join these terrorist groups because they feel hopeless or from their perspective, they believe there is no future inside the system for them. Therefore, they will risk their lives to change the system to benefit them, or if they fail, they will have created a better place for others (DeAngelis, 2010). One of the most powerful motives dealing with terrorism is probably revenge, especially in the Middle East. For a man not to seek revenge; he would be branded as a coward, therefore, to mitigate terrorist recruiting capabilities, and people who fight against terrorism must learn to avoid techniques, procedures, or tactics that drive people to join terrorist organizations. There are some terrorist groups that little are known that poses a serious threat to civil security. These groups may avoid public attention intentionally and assemble weapons of mass destruction quietly and use them. They operate independently because they are small and do not communicate with a headquarters, which causes difficulty in tracking their activities (DeAngelis, 2010).

5 The Impact of Terrorism Economically Depending on the nature and scale, these terrorist attacks can be detrimental to economic activity. Also, the economic growth can be reduced by the destruction of production inputs, diverting resource from economic production, to the enhancement of national security, and economic activity interruption with households and business spending plans disruption (Aronson, 2013). Today, the international scene is dominated by global terrorist networks with different strategies, tactics, motivation, and organizational structures than their ethnic-separatist predecessors. The terrorist changing nature in threatening multinational enterprises, and the implication for a sector targeting the luxury hotel industry in recent attacks. Luxury hotels mainly Western branded properties have suddenly become the terrorist’s crosshairs because they attract the type of people, such as foreign diplomats, tourists, and local elites the terrorist seek to eliminate. They are considered an open environment with several entrance points and consist of a constant traffic flow such as guests, merchants, visitors, and staff. Hotels lend to pre-attack inspections, photographs, floor plans, and video clips of the public area easily accessed from the Internet. By contrast, government and military facilities are more difficult to access (Wemick and Von, 2012). Also, terrorists realize that five-star hotel properties can yield a successful attack on an embassy scoring casualties, panic, and extensive attention from the media which is a boon to the terrorist recruitment. In the past, Israel was the frequent target of terrorism, but lately, the United States has become their main target. The terrorist attack that occurred on September 11, 2001, was the most destructive terrorist attack ever launched in the United States. This terrorist attack consisted of a group of Islamic terrorists believed to be associated with Al Qaeda, crashed three commercial

6 airliners into the Twin Towers, the Pentagon, and the World Trade Center in Manhattan, deliberately. The Pentagon was severely damaged, and the Twin Towers collapsed, as the airliners crashed into them. Approximately 3,000 people lost their lives because of this tragedy (Aronson, 2013). The terrorist attacks caused the United States to become outraged because of the cruelty and savageness of the attacks. Also, 10% of the people killed in the Twin Towers in Manhattan were foreign nationals. An international coalition against terrorism was organized by President Bush, and assistance was received from European allies – NATO, Russian Federation, and China against terrorism. The Pakistan’s government secured the United States the right to use Pakistan as a base for attacking Afghanistan, who harbored Osama bin Laden and Al Qaeda. The United States air strike continued three weeks after the terrorist attacks (Aronson, 2013). Wemick and Von (2012) argued that before the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack, terrorist used the threat of violence to achieve a political goal by intimidating, causing fear, or coercion, and did not focus on MNEs except for engaging in natural resource extraction. The attacks were small in scale with limited repercussions beyond the project targeted. Terrorism interest and its effect on global business have sharply increased among international business. There is minimum evidence available from al-Qaeda or other organizations suggesting if and when they were deterred from attacking because of the high likelihood of failure perceived directly to the action taken by the defender to harden targets, and secure vulnerable sites. Evidence of attack failure is not available, whether they were hindered during the planning stage, or the attempt failed. Al-Qaeda militants tried on several occasions to detonate liquid bombs on transatlantic aircraft but failed. These attack failures was an indication of intelligence agencies

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7 success in collecting and analyzing data and penetrating networks. However, these failures speak to the deterrence by denial to deter limiting challengers from hijack aircraft attempts. Recently, terrorism has evolved, and the event of global terrorist network challenges the international business theory (Wemick and Von, 2012). These challenges are traditionally in a form of concepts and a political risk of multinational enterprises (MNE) operating in conflictive areas. Researcher’s desire is to identify if certain industries or firms are more vulnerable than others. For example, using concentric bands in conceptualizing multiple levels or exposure to incidents involving terrorist using commercial planes against civilians. Also, researchers desire to identify the flexible attributes of certain firms following a terrorist incident. According to research, approximately 40% of businesses affected by terrorism do not reopen, and those that do reopen, 30% close within two years. Performance is the reason for this disparity (Wemick and Von, 2012). The Psychology of Why Terrorists Commit Acts of Violence Culture and society play an important role in dictating the way people respond to, view mental health, and suicide. However, social and cultural groups can be harsh, smothering, and helpful for suicide. In circumstances where the social group loyalty and commitment, people lose their ability to make choices Individuals are called and required to exhibit their dedication to the group and its causes by giving the power of life and death to the group’s needs (Guss and Tuason, 2014). Determining what drives individuals to terrorism is not a simple task. First and foremost, terrorists are hesitant in volunteering for exploratory, and analyzing their exercises long distance can prompt incorrect judgment. Besides, one terrorist group is considered other terrorist group’s

8 freedom fighter, as some Arabs supporting Palestinian suicide bombers demonstrate. Based on these ramifications, the terrorism psychology is determined based hypothesis and opinions rather than valid information. Some psychologists are starting to assemble pertinent information and data, and discovering its usefulness in viewing terrorism regarding political, group dynamics, and procedures rather than individually. Also, psychological principles, including instinctive fear of death, desiring for importance and personal meaning can assist in clarifying the aspects of terrorist activities and how to respond to them. In the long run, such data could assist with the complexity of avoiding terrorism (DeAngelis, 2010). Terrorists are inspired by rational, psychological, and cultural motives. Cultural motives have a far-ranging effect on terrorism and shape people motivation and actions that appear unreasonable to foreign observers. A cultural characteristic is a treatment of life in general and a person’s life in particular. People find themselves in a cultural situation where integration such as comfort, love, caring, and feelings of belonging are at a moderate level. The cultural factor correlate with suicide at different levels including individual, societal, geographical, and historical influences. Fearing cultural extermination prompts violence that appears irrational to someone has not experienced it. Societies where people are identified as a group, tribe, or family, a willingness to self-sacrifice, may exist. Terrorism major determinate is the perception of outcast and anticipation of the risk of ethnic group survival Many times; terrorists are willing to give their lives for their group, tribe, family, or cause. In the terrorist value system, the lives of others are viewed as wholly evil and can be destroyed with no remorse (Guss and Tuason, 2014). For several years, psychologists have examined the individual characteristics of terrorists, searching for clues to assist in explaining their willingness to participate in violent acts. In multiple studies, researchers have impelled death by mentally providing individuals with stimuli

9 or embedding a delay-and-distraction assignment between death indication and individuals’ appraisal of its effects. This subliminal prompt impels individuals to mentally guard themselves against death in ways bearing a minimal relationship to death issues. These include clinging to social personalities, striving to live up to cultural values, and putting everything on the line to protect those values (Leistedt, 2013). To test the hypothesis on the contention between the Middle East and the West, researchers arranged studies in Iran, Israel, and the United States (Leistedt, 2013). Individuals modestly assisted in remembering their mortality, and along these lines were firm with their group characteristics and were likely to support violence against outsiders. Iranians would support suicide bombing against the West. Americans were likely to support military constrain to fight Islamic extremists, regardless of the fact that it involved killing civilians. Israelis would approve violence against Palestinians. The research findings determined people are not comfortable as individuals, and joining terrorist groups award a sense of security Leistedt (2013) indicated that the involvement of a collectivist cause has always been a trademark of people willingness to be subjected to personal sacrifices. Globally, the fear of cultural destruction may assist in fueling terrorist sentiments. Rapid globalization has forced different cultures into contact with each other and threaten some groups to the subjection of disappearance. Islamic terrorism as a form of backlash to the understanding the diehard way of life is attacked and on the verge of becoming extinct. The beliefs caused psychologists to track public attitudes to determine a feasible method to use tin promoting peace. A researcher conducted an unpublished research that determined when people were reminded of a common human problem, their attitude toward out-group violence could be transformed. The United States coping with the war on terror and Palestine in

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10 mist of Israeli bombing were reasons to focus on local calamity or global warming. The studies determined the support of peacemaking activities increased by priming people with death threats and global warming. An encouraging note is that during the height of a conflict among people, mortality reminders and common cause reduces war support and increases peacemaking support (Leistedt (2013). Psychologists are exploring the initiatives effectiveness occurring in countries including Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Singapore, and the United Kingdom focusing on softening the minds and hearts of terrorist detainees (Leistedt (2013). An emotional component of the program consists of defusing the detainees’ frustration and anger by exhibiting genuine concern for their families, by funding their children education or providing their wives’ professional training. Also, this aspect of the program capitalizes the fact of the detainees’ lifestyle and imprisonment weariness. An intellectual component of the program consists of modern Muslim clerics holding dialogues with the detainees regarding the teaching on violence and jihad in the Quran. Psychologists’ discoveries suggest that mitigating individuals’ fear of culture destruction, highlighting ordinary humanity, or the demonstration of error between fantasy and the reality terrorist inclusion could prevent potential terrorists from turning violent. The idea of deterring terrorists from committing violent acts by using a peaceful dialogue and assistance is more than an optimist’s unrealistic hope, but actually, aiming at developing some de-radicalization programs around the world. For some time, psychologists analyzed the individual attributes of terrorists, searching for information that could disclose their eagerness to participate in violent activities. The psychologists concur that most terrorists are not pathological in any conventional sense. However, some knowledge gathered from approximately 60 previous terrorists sheds some light on what drives individuals to terrorism (DeAngelis, 2010).

11 In theory, for the strategy of deterrence by denial to be successful, the risk calculations at the heart of deterrence by denial remains unclear. It appears reasonable to assume the opponents must be motivated to attack. Also, the opponents must have the ability to read the targets protection signs added, analysis and massive data collection, strengthened firewalls, and the ability to calculate the failure probability rough approximation. Theoretically, attackers highly motivated may accept the probability of low success since they can afford failure multiple times as long as they succeed once. A high probability failure may be acceptable by the attackers because the public become frightened of the probability, the reputation of the attacking group magnifies, contribute to the exhibitionism of terrorism, and considered an important part of the strategy (Stein and Levi, 2015). An argument leveled against the strategy and theory of deterrence by denial is that no matter how impressive the defense or how low success is likely, motivated attackers search for the weakness of defense design. It is no surprise for the attacker to probe multiple points of the design for weaknesses. For example, aiding the security systems at major airports to fine weaknesses in the system that makes it vulnerable. Scholars suggested that when the failure odds become unacceptable high, attackers focus on softer targets. The safer targets include subway systems, malls, and sporting events that become an opportunity target. The theory of deterrence by denial is not challenged by evidence of displacement but limit its benefits significantly (Stein and Levi, 2015). The theory of terrorism is likely to occur in situations where collective strains including unjust, high magnitude, affected civilians, and significantly imposed by the power of others consist of the strains weak ties collectively. The likelihood of terrorism increasing is because these collective strains increase a negative mental state, reduces social control, the ability to cope

12 with military and legal avenues, foster terrorism social learning, and contribute to the strain responses. However, these strains are not the main cause of terrorism in some cases, but a variety of factoring conditions and their effects. Also, the conditions influence, subjectively interpret these strains, and the ability to engage in cost and terrorism disposition (Agnew, 2010). The strain theory is individualized and suggests that the personality traits of an individual result in their response to strain, and these traits will cause a person to commit criminal acts as a way to relieve the tension. Agnew (2010) argues that major traits associated with a person strain are the traits of constraints and negative emotions, and as these constraints provoked the person is led into an emotional anger and crime to release the anger. In some individuals, this adverse anger can be controlled by coupling with low constraint traits, but adding restrain to a person’s life can cause anger control issues. Agnew (2010) stated that the general strain theory did not do a good job in explaining crime as a theory. People who react to strain negatively do so delinquently but not necessarily criminally. Some people will act out against another person to relieve tension from strains, whereas another person may turn to crime to relieve the tension. The strain theory explains the difference between committing a delinquent act and committing a criminal act. Also, Agnew (2010) argues that an individual’s economic situation is the main strain that result in crime as an effort to improve their situation and a better life. The mediator between the threat perception and exclusionism is authoritarianism and is based on the crucial role that threats plays in developing the authoritarian views. The empirical support of authoritarianism comes from historical studies that proved citizens view elevated authoritarian behavior and attitude during social disturbance periods. Authoritarianism expresses motivation driven by threat to establish and maintain security in the form of cohesion, social

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13 control, order, and stability. Authoritarianism fosters devotion which increases exclusionism, and because authoritarianism stresses obedience to authority, authoritarians could path such qualities into their world or religion, and search for ways to move closer to their deity or authority figure (Asbrook and Fritsche, 2013). Authoritarianism was identified as the most common individual difference factor and antecedent of exclusionism. Also, authoritarianism was considered a product of social learning comprised of complementary traits that included military attacks, submission, and formality. Authoritarians are likely to obey authority and act aggressively, vigilant, and display little concern for protecting civil rights and liberties, and may embellish during threatening times. They are inclined to hold aggressive opinions and under certain circumstances oppose democratic principles perceived by most as non-threatening. Authoritarianism is linked to a variety of social and political attitudes and behaviors including supporting authoritarian leaders opposed to human rights and civil liberties (Asbrook and Fritsche, 2013). Authoritarianism is a need for compliance to group norms, and is not a consistently salient trait but is activated under normative threat conditions. When authoritarians notice threat, they will seek to enforce compliance, likely to follow authority, and become aggressive toward out-groups. Authoritarians tend to be more distrustful of others regarding chronic threat perceptions. When authoritarian leaders face uncertainty, they seek protection and directions on handling danger, but during conventional norms, they are provided proscriptions on how to behave. Also, authoritarians’ aggression to threat whether if it is the safety of the nation or cultural norms, approach is to try to eliminate it (Asbrook and Fritsche (2013). The unpublished research suggests a framework for policymakers to use in evaluating the programs, examining how the concept effort of measuring success is formed, and evaluating the

14 reality significance of the program claimed success (Leistedt, 2013). There is no evidence available suggesting that disengaging from terrorism necessarily result in de-radicalization. Conclusion While terrorist threats continue, The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and its partners across the federal government, public sectors, private sectors, and communities worldwide are working diligently to increase homeland security, diminish and defend terrorism, reduce risks, and maximize recovery from terrorist attacks of all kinds. These efforts increase the foundation of protecting communities and the country from terrorism while safeguarding the rights of Americans. In the last decade, the government has used both punishment and denial to deter terrorism (Stein and Levi, 2015). They have massively invested in homeland security that includes increasing security at major airports, toughen the perimeters of critical infrastructure, invested in intelligence collection and analysis, and built cyberspace firewalls to deter terrorism. Interpreted through the rational actor theories lens, these tactics play an important role in the likelihood failure and purpose is to reduce the likelihood of attacks. Terrorist has used every means possible such as acquiring legitimate passports, visas, to illegal stow away on gas tankers to enter the United States. These terrorists have used fraudulent means to seek legal immigration benefits and abused immigration benefits to remain in the United States. Some of these terrorists have engaged is multiple al-Qaeda related plans targeting Americans, and as the plotted attacks unfolded, cell phone numbers were previously in place in the United States (Woods and Arthur, 2014). The USCIS underpinning practical movement must be committed in enforcing with better and additional resources that include clear guidelines to process immigration benefits to

15 eliminate the arbitrary in decision making. A comprehensive immigration reform must include and streamline the complex immigration laws, and provide both sufficient human and technological resources for enforcing border laws and in the USCIS immigration benefits centers (Woods and Arthur, 2014) Risk management, targeting, and pattern analysis will assist in assuring tight resources are used efficiently in targeting immigration benefits applications that pose a risk to national security. Also, criminal jurisdiction and law enforcement agencies including the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and the FBI Joint Terrorism Task Forces must view investigations as a priority. Discovery of a naturalized citizen as an automatic terrorist denaturalization should be placed in motion with multiple appeals process harnessing ICE and DOJ talent and legal expertise. Addressing fraud effectively, requires the immigration benefits adjudicators access to history of immigration based on comprehensive and biometrically, including information when the individual applied for visa at the United States consulate or a passport to enter the country. The United States increasing its security measures into its adjudications of immigration benefits before granting will increase their success in rebuffing terrorist seeking to embed here (Woods and Arthur, 2014) The terrorist attacks in 2001 was not an isolated incident of Al-Qaeda incursion into the United States. Multiple operatives, mainly before 2001 terrorist attack, but a few after the 2001 terrorist attack managed to embed in the United States, and actively carry out plans in committing terrorist acts against the United States. Al Qaeda used every feasible mean to enter the country. The longer the duration of the stay, the easier it was for the terrorist to travel back and forth to the United States. Terrorist will continue to try to enter the United States to fulfill their mission, and immigration-related plans will be included in their instructions (Woods and

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16 Arthur, 2014). Until a system is designed to weed out terrorists, they will continue to be successful in planning their stay in the United States.

17 References Agnew, R. (January 01, 2010). A General Strain Theory of Terrorism. Theoretical criminology, 14, 2, 131-153. Aronson, J. (January 01, 2013).Terrorist. British Medical Journal, 324, 7333. Asbrook, F., & Fritsche, I. (February 01, 2013). Authoritarian Reaction to Terrorist Threat: Who is Being Threatened, The Me or the We? International Journal of Psychology, 48, 1, 35-49. Azman, P. (December 01, 2012). Why Suicide-Terrorists Get Educated, and What to do about it. Public Choice. 153, 357-373. DeAngelis, Tori. (November 01, 2010). Understanding Terrorism. American Psychological Association, 60 , 40, 10. Guss, C. D. & Tuason, M. T. (January 01, 2014). The Importance of Cultural Variables for Explaining Suicide Terrorism. The Behavioral and Brain Science, 37, 4, 370-1. Leistedt, S. J. (January 01, 2013). Behavioral Aspects of Terrorism. Forensic Science International, 228, 1-3. Stein, J. G., & Levi, R. (January 01, 2015). The Social Psychology of Denial: Deterring Terrorism. New York University Journal of International Law & Politics, 47, 2, 409-438. Wemick, D. A. & Von, G. M.A. (September 01, 2012). Reflections and the Evolving Terrorist Threat to Luxury Hotels: A Case Study on Marriott International. Thunderbird International Business Review, 54, 5, 729-746. Woods, J. & Arthur, C. D. (September 01, 2014). The Threat of Terrorism and the Changing Public Disclosures on Immigration after September 11. Sociological Spectrum, 34, 5, 421-441.

Week 8 - Final Project

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