Impact of Sleep Deprivation on College Student Productivity

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1 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 4-1 Final Project Milestone Two: Research Question, Hypothesis, and Annotated Bibliography Tyeshia Gantt Southern New Hampshire University

2 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Research Question The research question proposed is: Does sleep deprivation affect the productivity of college students? Sleep deprivation can affect many different things. “Sleep deprivation occurs when someone does not get the amount of sleep they need. It is estimated that sleep deprivation affects around one-third of Americans, with increased prevalence in recent years. Lack of sleep directly affects how we think and feel. Even after just one night without enough rest, we can feel drowsy during the day with slowed thinking, lack of energy, and an irritable mood. While the short-term impacts are more noticeable, chronic sleep deprivation can heighten the long-term risk of physical and mental health problems” (Suni & Dimitriu, 2022). Hypothesis The proposed hypothesis is as follows: Sleep deprivation has a negative impact on productivity. Sleep loss tends to have a negative impact on a person’s daily life. Sleep loss affects any and everybody. Studies have shown that college students tend to not get an adequate amount of rest due to a lack of time management and other factors. The negative effects of sleep deprivation can be measured by a decrease in grades and a decrease in completing daily tasks. Article Selections & Abstracts Article 1: The interaction between sleep quality and academic performance. Ahrberg, K., Dresler, M., Niedermaier, S., Steiger, A., & Genzel, L. (2012). The interaction between sleep quality and academic performance. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(12), 1618–1622. Retrieved from https://doi- org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.09.008

3 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Abstract “Sleep quality has significant effects on cognitive performance and is influenced by multiple factors such as stress. Contrary to the ideal, medical students and residents suffer from sleep deprivation and stress at times when they should achieve the greatest amount of learning. In order to examine the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance, 144 medical students undertaking the pre-clinical board exam answered a survey regarding their subjective sleep quality (Pittsburgh sleep quality index, PSQI), grades and subjective stress for three different time points: semester, pre- and post-exam. Academic performance correlated with stress and sleep quality pre-exam (r = 0.276, p < 0.001 and r = 0.158, p < 0.03, note that low performance meant low sleep quality and high stress), however not with the stress or sleep quality during the semester and post-exam. 59% of all participants exhibited clinically relevant sleep disturbances (PSQI > 5) during exam preparation compared to 29% during the semester and 8% post-exam. This study shows that in medical students it is not the generally poor sleepers, who perform worse in the medical board exams. Instead students who will perform worse on their exams seem to be more stressed and suffer from poor sleep quality. However, poor sleep quality may negatively impact test performance as well, creating a vicious circle. Furthermore, the rate of sleep disturbances in medical students should be cause for intervention” (Ahrberg et al., 2012). Evaluation of the Article “Many studies strongly suggest that timing of sleep as well as its quality and quantity are linked with students' learning abilities and academic achievement and that students are often chronically sleep deprived. Studies have indicated that over 60% of college students were poor- quality sleepers, resulting in daytime sleepiness and an increase on physical and psychological

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4 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY health problems” (Ahrberg et al., 2012). This article goes in-depth concerning the connection between sleep quality and performance. Understanding the effects of sleep quality and performance will help to better understand if sleep deprivation has a negative impact on productivity. Comparison to Other Sources “This study showed that academic performance is linked to sleep quality and stress prior to the exam. Both stress and sleep quality correlated with exam grades, note that low performance meant low sleep quality and high stress; yet, this relationship was not found for the other time points. It seems however that those students who generally sleep poorly do not receive bad grades. Perceived stress has been identified as one major factor contributing to these low scores in sleep quality, resulting in delayed sleep onset, increased day dysfunction due to sleepiness and reduced subjective sleep quality” (Ahrberg et al., 2012). Compared to the other sources, this study focused on academic performance versus productivity. The performance aspect is important to understand because sleep deprivation can cause a decrease in performance which will affect productivity. Limitations “To summarize, this study investigated the interrelationship of exam performance, sleep quality and stress. We could show that sleep quality and stress directly prior to the exam but not during the semester or after the exam is linked with exam performance” (Ahrberg et al., 2012). A limitation of this article is that it focuses on academic performance. The study is not centered of lack of sleep, however, it just incorporates it by default throughout the study.

5 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Article 2: Sleep deprivation weakens goal-driven processing by highlighting stimulus- driven processing in conflict processing. Peng, Y., Zhang, X., Yang, X., Feng, S., Du, M., Zhang, R., Sima, J., Wu, X., Zou, F., Wang, Y., Luo, Y., & Zhang, M. (2023). Sleep deprivation weakens goal-driven processing by highlighting stimulus-driven processing in conflict processing. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1007/s12144-023-05182-z Abstract “A complex environment requires us to maintain good conflict processing ability at all times, but how sleep deprivation affects conflict processing remains unclear. Here, we sought to use EEG techniques to explore how sleep deprivation affects the interference of stimulus-driven processing in goal-driven processing in individuals. Subjects were randomly assigned to a sleep deprivation group and control group. Behaviorally, there were significant between-group differences in accuracy but not in response time. At the EEG level, the main effect of P3b, Ni latency, and LSP mean amplitude was significant. Furthermore, at the time–frequency level, the interaction between the group and the conflict effect in the lower alpha band in the conflict detection stage, the alpha band and the beta band in the conflict suppression stage, and the alpha band in the conflict resolution stage was significant. These results suggest that sleep deprivation affects the effectiveness of the flanker task without affecting efficiency, mainly because sleep deprivation highlights the subject’s stimulus-driven processing, thereby weakening the subject’s conflict resolution ability. Our findings may provide insights into neural functional changes in the impact of sleep deprivation on conflict processing” (Peng et al., 2023).

6 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Evaluation of the Article This article focuses on how sleep deprivation can affect a goal-driven individual. In relation to the research question and hypothesis, most college students are goal-driven. College students tend to plan everything out and try to have a set plan for things they want to achieve. This article provides information on how sleep deprivation can affect someone who is solely goal-driven. It proves that effectiveness is lacking, however, tasks may still be able to be completed with flaws. Comparison to Other Sources Compared to the other sources, this provides insight into how sleep-deprived individuals handle completing tasks while under conflict. There are a lot of additional factors that play a part in this study because it incorporates stress and conflict factors. All of which is expected for a sleep-deprived individual to experience. The outcome of this study is similar to the others because some of the participants were still able to complete their tasks while not getting an adequate amount of sleep. Limitations A limitation of this article is that it's conflict-focused versus productivity. This limitation is important to consider because the research question/hypothesis is focused on productivity. Sleep deprivation can allow an individual to be in a stressful mental state and not handle conflicts arising from the lack of sleep. In return, this will affect productivity which goes hand in hand. Article 3: Drivers of productivity: Being physically active increases yet sedentary bouts and lack of sleep decrease work ability.

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7 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Giurgiu, M., Nissen, R., Müller, G., Ebner, P. U. W., Reichert, M., & Clark, B. (2021). Drivers of productivity: Being physically active increases yet sedentary bouts and lack of sleep decrease work ability. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 31(10), 1921–1931. Abstract “ Physical behavior (ie, physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep) is a crucial lifestyle factor for preventing and managing diseases across the lifespan. However, less is known about potential work‐related psychological and cognitive outcomes such as productivity. The present study examined within‐person associations between physical behavior and self‐perceived work ability. To investigate the degree to which physical behavior parameters influence self‐ perceived work ability in everyday life, we conducted an Ambulatory Assessment study in 103 university students over 5 days. Physical behavior was assessed continuously via a multi‐sensor system. Self‐perceived work ability was assessed repeatedly up to six times per day on smartphones. We employed multilevel modeling to analyze the within‐person effects of physical behavior on self‐perceived work ability. Physical activity intensity (MET) (β = 0.15 ± 0.06, t = 2.59, p = 0.012) and sit‐to‐stand transitions (β = 0.07 ± 0.03, t = 2.44, p = 0.015) were positively associated with self‐perceived work ability. Sedentary bouts (≥20 min) (β = −0.21 ± 0.08, t = −2.74, p = 0.006) and deviation from a recommended sleep duration (ie, 8 h) (β = −0.1 ± 0.04, t = −2.38, p = 0.018) were negatively associated with self‐perceived work ability. Exploratory analyses supported the robustness of our findings by comparing various time frames. Total sedentary time and sleep quality were not associated with self‐perceived work ability. Regular sleep durations, breaking up sedentary time through sit‐to‐stand transitions, and higher intensities

8 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY of physical activity may be important for the regulation of self‐perceived work ability in university students' daily lives” (Giurgiu et al., 2021). Evaluation of the Article “There is broad evidence that insufficient sleep is associated with adverse mental and physical health conditions. We found that a deviation from a recommended sleep duration of 8h was negatively associated with self-perceived work ability. In accordance with the present results, previous studies have shown that workers who sleep less than 6h per day reported higher productivity loss than workers who sleep between 7 and 9h” (Giurgiu et al., 2021). This article uses college students to determine if lack of sleep affects their workability or if increased physical activity has a higher risk. The study was able to determine that lack of sleep poses a higher risk for college students when it comes to their workability. “After adding different physical behavior parameters in one single model, findings for most predictors lost significance. Only the deviation from a recommended sleep duration of 8 h remained statistically significant. It is difficult to explain this result, but it is possible that compared to physical activity and sedentary behavior, sleep duration may have the most decisive impact on self-perceived work ability” (Giurgiu et al., 2021). Comparison to Other Sources Compared to the other sources, this article is very direct and focuses on the productivity aspect. It provides another alternative to what could affect productivity which is physical activity. Utilizing the two throughout the study proved that sleep deprivation poses a higher risk to college students when it comes to completing daily tasks. Limitations

9 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY The study couldn’t exclude residual confounders like social or nutritional factors. The data was analyzed based on observations which will show everything in order. “Chronology comprises only one aspect of causality” (Giurgiu et al., 2021). Another limitation is that the workability was assessed from a self-perceived perspective. Article 4: Does sleep help or harm managers’ perceived productivity? Trade-offs between affect and time as resources. Sayre, G. M., Grandey, A. A., & Almeida, D. M. (2021). Does sleep help or harm managers’ perceived productivity? Trade-offs between affect and time as resources. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 26(2), 127–141. Retrieved from https://doi- org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1037/ocp0000192 Abstract “Managers often do not get the recommended amount of sleep needed for proper functioning. Based on conservation of resources theory, we suggest that this is a result of sleep having both resource gains (improved affect) and losses (less time) that compete to determine managers’ perceived productivity the next day. This trade-off may, in turn, determine the amount of investment in sleep the next night. In a diary study with hotel managers, we found support for sleep as resource loss. After nights with more sleep than usual, managers reported lower perceived productivity due to fewer hours spent at work. In fact, for every hour spent sleeping, managers reported working 31 min, 12 s less. Further, when perceived productivity is reduced managers withdraw and conserve their resources by getting more sleep the next night (12 min, 36 s longer for each scale point decrease in perceived productivity), consistent with loss spirals from conservation of resources theory. Exploratory analyses revealed that sleep has a curvilinear effect

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10 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY on affect, such that too little or too much sleep is not beneficial. Overall, our study demonstrates the often-ignored trade-offs of sleep in terms of affect and work time, which has downstream implications for managers’ perceived productivity” (Sayre, Grandey, & Almeida, 2021). Evaluation of the Article This article discusses how managers who get an adequate amount of sleep can perform their job functions better and create a healthy work environment. This study addressed how stress, irritability, and productivity are affected by sleep deprivation. “Based on COR, sleeping more on a given day should lead to greater perceived productivity reported by employees because of increases in affective resources. Sleep duration is strongly tied to brain functioning— particularly in the prefrontal cortex, an area responsible for attention and enthusiasm. Getting adequate sleep allows the prefrontal cortex to operate at full capacity compared with less sleep, which impairs its functioning and results in downstream costs like cognitive interference. Indeed, sleep has been repeatedly shown to increase resources such as affect and vigor” (Sayre, Grandey, & Almeida, 2021). Comparison to Other Sources This article focuses on the working environment compared to college students. Managers are like college students when it comes to time management and balancing responsibilities. Both struggle with getting an adequate amount of sleep which affects their production, mental and emotional state, etc. This article is different due to the type of study group being used, however, the data gathered is relevant to the research question/hypothesis pertaining to sleep deprivation and production amongst college students. Limitations

11 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY “Although many of our measures contained simple, concrete questions that are appropriate for “self-reported facts” like time use and also minimize concerns about common method bias, our reliance on single-item measures means we may have been unable to fully capture all aspects of our constructs of interest, particularly perceived work productivity. This construct was also self-reported although we note that the within-person nature of our analyses eliminates any person-level tendencies to overinflate perceived productivity due to social desirability, for example. Nonetheless, future work should strive to temporally separate measures and gather reports from other sources (e.g., supervisor rated performance, actigraphy reports of sleep) to further minimize common method biases” (Sayre, Grandey, & Almeida, 2021). Article 5: Sleep: A fundamental building block for the health and well-being of individuals and organizations. Johnson, S. S. (2018). Sleep: A fundamental building block for the health and well-being of individuals and organizations. American Journal of Health Promotion, 32(7), 1627–1628. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1177/0890117118790621 Abstract “This article discusses sleep as a fundamental building block for the health and well- being of individuals and organizations. Sleep falls well below physical fitness, nutrition, or work on respondents’ lists of priorities. To examine the relationship between effectiveness and sleep more closely, the team from the NSF divided their sample into 4 quartiles based on each participant’s Sleep Health Index. Sleep Health Index scores range from 0 to 100, with higher scores reflecting better sleep health. Sleep health was an independent predictor of effectiveness even after controlling for demographic variables. It is understandable, then, how insufficient

12 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY sleep impacts productivity and performance and therefore has broad economic implications. Employers are now taking note of the importance of sleep” (Johnson, 2018). Evaluation of the Article This article discusses how jobs notice the importance of an adequate amount of sleep for employees. The article provides insight into how lack of sleep affects productivity and other cognitive features. “Sleep health was an independent predictor of effectiveness even after controlling for demographic variables. It is understandable, then, how insufficient sleep impacts productivity and performance3 and therefore has broad economic implications. Some have likened lack of sleep to drinking alcohol given its effect on cognitive functioning. Excessive sleepiness contributes to lower alertness scores, as well as impaired decision-making, memory, and motivation. Poor sleepers are more likely to report dissatisfaction with their jobs, low energy while working, and less personal control over work. The deterioration in cognitive performance and errors in decision-making are taking an approximate 2.3% toll on the gross domestic product (GDP): The costs attributed to insufficient sleep now exceed $410 billion a year” (Johnson, 2018). Comparison to Other Sources This article is similar to the study that focused on managers who are sleep-deprived. While daily workers may have a different lifestyle from college students, they both must manage their time and plan daily tasks so that they are completed by deadlines and the quality is acceptable. Compared to all the other articles, the outcome is still the same. It is still proven that lack of sleep affects many different things and production remains at the top of the list. Limitations

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13 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY This article is specific to the working environment and not college students. The similarities in responsibilities and the need for time management make this article relevant and the data is informal based on the research question/hypothesis. Article 6: Procrastination in University Students: A Proposal of a Theoretical Model. Araya-Castillo, L., Burgos, M., González, P., Rivera, Y., Barrientos, N., Yáñez Jara, V., Ganga- Contreras, F., & Sáez, W. (2023). Procrastination in University Students: A Proposal of a Theoretical Model. Behavioral Sciences (2076-328X), 13(2), 128. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.3390/bs13020128 Abstract “Procrastination is a phenomenon that affects university students and consists of not finishing a task or finishing it late, which has a direct impact on their academic performance. This is relevant because, in a context of high competition, higher education institutions and their decision-makers need to be aware of the factors that influence university students' procrastination in order to implement actions that favor student attraction and retention. Based on the above, this research aims to propose a theoretical model of procrastination in university students, based on the literature review and content validation assessment through a semi-structured questionnaire. The proposed model is made up of nine dimensions: Psychological, Physiological, Social, Academic, Leisure, Time Management, Resources, Labor, and Environmental. Dimensions were obtained based on adequate levels of content validity provided by the literature and the questionnaire. In the future, the research proposes to study the way in which these dimensions are present in procrastination and design a scale that allows for their measurement” (Araya- Castillo et al., 2023).

14 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Evaluation of the Article This article focuses on procrastination among college students. Many college students struggle with procrastination due to a lack of time management. Also, lack of sleep could be a factor for procrastination. Lack of sleep can cause a decrease in energy or motivation. This decrease can cause an individual to push a task out until the last minute. Some may still be able to perform well under that type of pressure but others can't. “This is relevant because education basically focuses on the progressive development of students’ knowledge and skills, and on the creation of an environment of safety and healthy interaction among students, professors, and the rest of the people in the institution [14–16]. Understanding the factors that explain procrastinating behavior is not only relevant for students and universities but also for society as a whole, since, among all sectors, higher education is the one that relates the most to the growth of a society and its socio-economic development” (Araya-Castillo et al., 2023). Comparison to Other Sources Compared to the other sources, this study takes a different approach. Procrastination among college students can be a result from sleep deprivation. The outcome of this study is fairly different because it focuses on the contributing factors of procrastination. “Procrastination is a relatively old phenomenon, as psychologist William James already recognized the emotional cost generated in people who suffered from it more than 120 years ago. Lay pointed out that procrastination considers importance to the individual whose action is being postponed, while Milgram, Mey-Tal, and Levison discussed whether the performance of a task is voluntary or imposed, and Steel wondered whether the person is aware of the negative consequences of this postponement. Along these lines, Steel and Ferrari defined procrastination as an insufficiency in self-regulation processes that causes the voluntary delay of planned activities or an ineffective

15 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY lifestyle that leads to a failure in the fulfillment and commitment to set targets. In this light, procrastination involves the action of not finishing a task or finishing it late, and this process is generally accompanied by feelings of nervousness or restlessness, and discouragement” (Araya- Castillo et al., 2023). Limitations “Owlia and Aspinwall established that validity comprises two aspects: quantitative validity and qualitative validity. Qualitative validity identifies the dimensions linked to procrastination in the literature and reviews their validity through a questionnaire. Qualitative validity determines whether the measures capture the key factors of an unobservable construct, which is also in line with content validity. The latter is relevant for full validation and the subsequent scaling of the PUS model. Future research studies are expected to collect information through individual interviews, focus groups, and expert opinions, seeking to achieve category saturation. The proposal, therefore, is to use qualitative tools as they allow for analyzing phenomena in greater depth than quantitative tools. The proposal includes the following: fifteen in-depth interviews to be conducted to find out students’ perceptions of the procrastination construct and the dimensions that they consider relevant in evaluation; four focus groups to study and analyze students’ perceptions in interaction; and four experts in university procrastination can also participate, who should be asked to evaluate the proposed scale for procrastination in university students. This information will be used to validate the results obtained from the semi- structured online questionnaires applied to the students” (Araya-Castillo et al., 2023).

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16 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY References Ahrberg, K., Dresler, M., Niedermaier, S., Steiger, A., & Genzel, L. (2012). The interaction between sleep quality and academic performance. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(12), 1618–1622. Retrieved from https://doi- org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.09.008 Araya-Castillo, L., Burgos, M., González, P., Rivera, Y., Barrientos, N., Yáñez Jara, V., Ganga- Contreras, F., & Sáez, W. (2023). Procrastination in University Students: A Proposal of a Theoretical Model. Behavioral Sciences (2076-328X), 13(2), 128. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.3390/bs13020128 Johnson, S. S. (2018). Sleep: A fundamental building block for the health and well-being of individuals and organizations. American Journal of Health Promotion, 32(7), 1627–1628. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1177/0890117118790621 Peng, Y., Zhang, X., Yang, X., Feng, S., Du, M., Zhang, R., Sima, J., Wu, X., Zou, F., Wang, Y., Luo, Y., & Zhang, M. (2023). Sleep deprivation weakens goal-driven processing by highlighting stimulus-driven processing in conflict processing. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1007/s12144-023-05182-z Sayre, G. M., Grandey, A. A., & Almeida, D. M. (2021). Does sleep help or harm managers’ perceived productivity? Trade-offs between affect and time as resources. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 26(2), 127–141. Retrieved from https://doi- org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1037/ocp0000192

17 RUNNING HEAD: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Suni, E., & Dimitriu, A. (2022). Sleep Deprivation: Causes, Symptoms, & Treatment. Sleep Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/sleep-deprivation

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