Obstacles to Human Development

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Obstacles to Human Development Three decades have gone since the Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq in the opening line of the first Human Development Report (HDR) commissioned by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990 made the below assertion that still echoes with contemporary societies (Nebo, p.3). People are the real wealth of a nation, Nebo, writes “The basic objective of development is to create an enabling environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives. This may appear to be a simple truth. But it is often forgotten in the immediate concern with the accumulation of commodities and financial wealth.” (p.3). Evidenced by some remarkable achievements toward human development globally supported by facts from credible and authoritative source(s), it is obvious that Haq assertion has touched the consciences of many government in developing countries. For example, Rwanda has a Gender Development Index (GDII) value of 0.412, ranking it 95 out of 162 countries in the 2018 index. In Rwanda, 55.7percent of parliamentary seats are held by women, and 12.9percent of adult women have reached at least a secondary level of education compared to 17.9percentof their male counterparts. Female participation in the labour market is 84.2percent compared to 83.6 for men (Nebo, p.3). Between 2000 and 2018, Ethiopia’s Human Development Index value increased from 0.283to 0.470, an increase of 65.8 percent. Between 1990 and 2018, Ethiopia’s life expectancy at birth increased by 19.1 years, mean years of schooling increased by 1.3 years and expected years of schooling increased by 5.6 years. Ethiopia’s GNI per capita increased by about 173.7percent between1990and 2018. (Nebo, p.3). Between 1990 and 2018, Botswana’s HDI value increased from 0.570 to 0.728, an increase of 27.6 percent. This progress put Botswana in the high human development category- positioning it at 94 out of 189 countries and territories. Although the above examples from the Rwanda, Ethiopia and Botswana reflect significant achievements. However, observations supported by reliable data from credible and authoritative source(s) will convince you about the daunting challenges or obstacles to human development in some developing countries that must be addressed. Liberia labelled by development gurus as third world county or developing country is no exception to the obstacles of human development despite some impressive level of progress that will be identified subsequentially in this paper (Nebo, p.3).This paper provides a study of the what is perceived to be the main problems with human development that are so historic and even before the assertion of Mahbub ul Haq. Analysis regarding human development The first Human Development Report (HDR) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), released in 1990, was an important document because it reopened the debate on the measurement of development. Effectively, it distilled various concepts that had been raised in earlier development discussions into a unified theme of `human development'. It also provided a handy, if preliminary, framework for measuring performance on the dimensions of human development through the human development index (HDI). This framework has continued to be the keystone of this series of annual reports from the UNDP, of which there have been eight so far. In my opinion, the biggest contribution of this series of reports has been to carve a place of prominence for the concept of human development in intellectual discourse and, to a lesser extent, in international policy discussions. Moreover, individual reports have contributed to the human development debate by focusing on and exploring in some detail, selected themes such as people's participation, gender, and

poverty. In essence, the HDRs have pushed the boundaries of the development debate beyond a traditional economic perspective—the HDI can be considered as a first and important step toward incorporating broad notions of sustainability into measures of development. A lively debate on the index, and how to improve it was evident in the first few years immediately following the 1990 report. The UNDP seemed to be participating in, even encouraging, this discussion. The debate has, however, tapered off since then, although without completely disappearing. The first HDR had promised that future reports would build on the original structure, that the concepts would be further refined and made more robust and that facets of operationalizing human development would be explored in ever-increasing detail. HDR 1991—the only report to make significant changes to the methods of calculating the HDI—had acknowledged that “there is some way to go before the HDI can be confidently used to interpret reality and make key policy decisions”. Yet, the essential content of the method used to calculate the index has remained substantively unchanged since then and the index itself seems to have slipped into a rut of conceptual complacency, although the amount of fanfare that has accompanied the release of the HDRs has increased over time. The inequality adjusted human development index used by United Nations The HDI represents a national average of human development achievements in the three basic dimensions making up the HDI: health, education and income. Like all averages, it conceals disparities in human development across the population within the same country. Two countries with different distributions of achievements can still have the same average HDI value. The IHDI takes into account not only the average achievements of a country in health, education, and income, but also how those achievements are distributed among its population by “discounting” each dimension’s average value according to its level of inequality. The IHDI has been calculated for years 2010-2018. By analyzing the trend in the IHDI one can assess the direction of the change. Dashboard 5 on socioeconomic sustainability includes the annual average change in the overall loss due to inequality in HDI distribution across population. The IHDI relies on data on income/consumption and years of schooling from major publicly available databases, which contain micro data from national household surveys harmonized to common international standards. It is important to stress that some inequality is inevitable and legitimate, because people’s abilities and values differ; it can also be constructive in providing incentives. So, the IHDI has a relatively mild penalization of inequality because of its chosen inequality aversion factor. How strongly inequality is penalized can be adjusted by changing this factor. The inequality aversion factor sets strength of penalization. In other words, they can have some inequality and their IHDI will still be very close to their HDI. The IHDI directly links inequalities in each dimension of the HDI to the resulting loss in human development, thus it can help inform policies towards inequality reduction and assist in evaluating their impact. Large HDI losses due to inequality indicate that society has much to gain from concentrating its efforts on equity-improving reforms. Also, the IHDI has been designed so that (data permitting) national IHDIs can be decomposed by sub-groups, such as regions or ethnic groups, to highlight differences between human development achievements for these groups (something that cannot be done accurately using the Gini coefficient, for example). More generally, a focus on the IHDI may prompt societies and governments to favor development strategies that promote all-encompassing growth. That is to say growth that improves average human development attainments and the distribution of those attainments in all three dimensions.

For some countries the assessment of inequality in the income dimension is based on household consumption, and for others it is based on income distribution. Are these inequalities comparable? By their very nature, income and consumption yield different levels of inequalities, with income inequality being higher than inequality in consumption. Income seems to correspond more naturally to the notion of command over resources. Consumption data are arguably more accurate in developing countries, less skewed by high values, and directly reflect the conversion of resources. Income data also pose technical challenges because of the greater presence of zero and negative values. In an ideal world, one would be consistent in the use of either income or consumption data to estimate inequality. However, to obtain sufficient country coverage, it is necessary to use both. The final estimates are modestly influenced by whether inequality refers to income or consumption distribution. Developmental psychology and how nurture and nature affect it. Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the study of human development across the lifespan, from infancy to old age. It seeks to understand how individuals change and grow physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially over time. The debate of nature versus nurture has been a central topic in developmental psychology. It refers to the relative influence of genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on human development. Nature refers to the inherited or genetic factors that shape an individual's characteristics, while nurture refers to the environmental influences that impact development. Both nature and nurture play crucial roles in shaping human development, and it is generally recognized that they interact and influence each other rather than operating independently. According to Caplan et al., (2019, p.5) parenting behavior is arguably the most prominent social environmental influence on child development. In fact, caregiving is necessary for normal offspring brain development across species. Developmental theories, including attachment theory Bowlby and social information processing theory (Caplan et al., 2019, p.5), highlight parent-child interactions as central to the formation of cognitive schemas that provide children with a framework for future social learning and relationship formation. Indeed, high quality parenting predicts children’s social, behavioral, and academic adjustment, particularly during the early- to mid-elementary school years. Caregiving that is sensitive and responsive is consistently related to cognitive-affective processes and downstream social behavior, including more secure attachment, social competence and affect regulation. Parents may further support optimal child social adjustment through cognitive stimulation activities (Caplan et al., 2019, p.5), and affect expression and emotion socialization. In contrast, intrusive parenting is associated with poor emotional and behavioral adjustment. Importantly, child and parenting behavior occur in a dynamic transaction across development; children that lack social engagement to elicit parent interaction may be at risk for less exposure to positive parenting, which in turn may maintain poor social functioning. Thus, it is essential to take into account relevant child characteristics to adequately estimate parents’ influence on social development over time. Through the authors analysis this paper finds that nature and nurture affect different aspects of development, these aspects are; physical Development, it is evident that nature plays a significant role

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in physical development. Genetic factors determine an individual's height, body type, hair color, and other physical characteristics. However, environmental factors such as nutrition, physical activity, and exposure to toxins can also impact physical development. The second is the cognitive Development where it is defined as the growth of thinking, problem-solving, and language skills. While genetics contribute to the overall potential of an individual's cognitive abilities, environmental factors like education, parenting styles, cultural influences, and socioeconomic status greatly shape cognitive development. The third aspect is the emotional growth that involves the acquisition of emotional regulation, empathy, and social skills. Genetics can predispose individuals to certain temperamental traits, but environmental factors, such as parenting, attachment, social interactions, and cultural norms, also influence emotional development. Finally, there exists social development as discussed by Caplan et al., (2019, p.5) it is the development of social skills, relationships, and understanding of social norms. Genetics can influence an individual's temperament and sociability, but environmental factors, such as family, peers, culture, and societal values, significantly impact social development. It's important to note that the nature-nurture debate does not pit genetics against the environment as opposing forces. Rather, it recognizes that both nature and nurture interact and work together to shape human development. For example, genetic factors can influence an individual's sensitivity to environmental influences, and environmental factors can impact the expression of genes. Contemporary developmental psychology emphasizes the dynamic interplay between nature and nurture, recognizing that both are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of human development. The life stages in developmental psychology Orenstein & Lewis, (2022, par 2) stages arise as individuals grow and face new decisions and turning points during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each stage is defined by two opposing psychological tendencies – one positive/syntactic and negative/dystonic. From this develops an ego virtue/strength or maldevelopment, respectively. If the virtue is adopted, it can help to resolve the current decision or conflict. It will also help subsequent stages of development and contribute to a stable foundation for core belief systems in relating to the self and the outer world. The opposite is true with the adoption of the maldeveloped quality. In developmental psychology, life stages refer to the different periods of human growth and development that individuals go through from birth to old age. While there are various theories and models proposing different stages, one of the most well-known and widely accepted is Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory. According to Erikson, there are eight stages of development that encompass the entire lifespan (Orenstein & Lewis, 2022, par 5). These stages are as follows: Infancy, 0-1 year During this stage, infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust based on the consistency and reliability of their caregivers. It involves the establishment of a secure attachment with primary caregivers and a belief that the world is a safe place. Early Childhood, 1-3 years Toddlers develop a sense of autonomy and independence as they learn to control their bodies and make choices. If they face excessive control or criticism, they may develop shame and doubt about their abilities.

Preschool, 3-6 years Children begin to assert themselves and take the initiative in activities. If their efforts are overly restricted or criticized, they may develop a sense of guilt and become overly dependent on others. School Age, 6-12 years Children develop a sense of industry and competence as they acquire new skills and knowledge. If they experience repeated failures or negative feedback, they may develop feelings of inferiority. Adolescence, 12-18 years Adolescents explore and develop a sense of self-identity, including their values, beliefs, and life goals. If they are unable to form a clear identity, they may experience role confusion and uncertainty about their future. Young Adulthood, 18-40 years Young adults seek close and meaningful relationships with others. If they struggle with forming intimate connections, they may experience feelings of loneliness and isolation. Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years Adults strive to make a positive impact on the world and contribute to future generations through their work, family, or community involvement. If they feel unproductive or stagnant, they may experience a sense of dissatisfaction. Late Adulthood, 65 years and older Older adults reflect on their lives and develop a sense of integrity and fulfillment. If they have regrets or perceive their lives as unfulfilled, they may experience despair and a sense of hopelessness. It's important to note that these stages are not fixed or rigid, and individuals may progress through them at different rates or face challenges that can influence their development. Additionally, other developmental theories and models may propose different stages or emphasize different aspects of development. Child development and how it is influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life Child development is a complex process influenced by a combination of genetic factors and events during prenatal life. Both genetics and prenatal experiences play crucial roles in shaping various aspects of a child's development, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. Kendra Cherry, (2011, par 1) says that think of these influences as building blocks. While most people tend to have the same basic building blocks, these components can be put together in an infinite number of ways. Consider individual overall personality. How much of who one is today shaped by their genetic background and how much is a result of their lifetime of experiences? This question has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and educators for hundreds of years and is frequently referred to as the nature versus nurture debate. Are we the result of nature (their genetic background) or nurture? Today, most researchers agree that child development involves a complex interaction of both nature and nurture.

At its very beginning, the development of a child starts when the male reproductive cell, or sperm, penetrates the protective outer membrane of the female reproductive cell, or ovum. The sperm and ovum each contain chromosomes that act as a blueprint for human life. The genes contained in these chromosomes are made up of a chemical structure known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the genetic code, or instructions, that make up all life. Except for the sperm and ova, all cells in the body contain 46 chromosomes. Genetic factors refer to the inherited traits and characteristics passed down from parents to their children through their genes. Genes contain the instructions for building and maintaining the human body, including the development of the brain and other organ systems. These genetic factors contribute to individual differences in various developmental domains. Genetic factors significantly influence physical development, determining traits such as height, weight, eye color, hair color, and overall physical health. They also play a role in susceptibility to certain health conditions or disorders. As discussed by Kendra Cherry, this paper finds that genetic factors contribute to cognitive abilities, including intelligence, memory, language skills, and learning capacities. While genes establish a foundation for cognitive development, environmental factors and experiences also interact with genetics to shape cognitive abilities (Kendra Cherry, 2011, par 9). Additionally, Genetic factors can influence temperament, personality traits, and emotional regulation in children. Certain genes may contribute to a predisposition for specific temperamental traits or susceptibility to mental health disorders. However, environmental factors also play a significant role in socio-emotional development. This paper cannot dismiss the aspect of adequate nutrition during pregnancy since it is crucial for the development of the fetus. Proper intake of nutrients, vitamins, and minerals supports the growth of the baby's organs, including the brain. Malnutrition or deficiencies during pregnancy can lead to developmental delays or increased susceptibility to certain health conditions. Another key aspect are the teratogens which are external agents that can disrupt the normal development of the fetus. These can include substances such as alcohol, tobacco, drugs, certain medications, and exposure to environmental toxins. Teratogens can cause physical abnormalities, cognitive impairments, and increase the risk of developmental disorders. It's important to note that genetics and prenatal experiences are not the sole determinants of child development. Postnatal factors, such as parenting style, socio-economic status, cultural influences, and access to resources, also significantly shape a child's growth and development. Nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) interact dynamically throughout a child's life, influencing their developmental trajectory. Clearly, genetic influences have an enormous influence on how a child develops. However, it is important to remember that genetics is just one piece of the intricate puzzle that makes up a child's life (Kendra Cherry, 2011, par 20). Environmental variables including parenting, culture, education, and social relationships also play a vital role. The concept of human development according to economist Mahbub ul Haq Mahbub ul Haq was a Pakistani economist who is widely known for his contributions to the field of human development. He played a crucial role in developing the concept of human development and was one of the key architects of the Human Development Index (HDI), a widely used measure of a country's overall development(Secondi, 2008, p.30).

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According to Mahbub ul Haq, human development should be the central focus of any development strategy. He believed that economic growth alone is not sufficient to measure the progress and well- being of a society. Instead, he advocated for a broader approach that takes into account the improvement of people's lives in various dimensions. Haq believed that the agenda of human development will have to be implemented both at the national as well as the global level. Policies that seek to reduce inequality within nations must be matched by efforts at reducing them between nations (Secondi, 2008, p.30). Towards this end the HDRs have proposed several initiatives, but Haq never tired of reminding the developed industrial economies that they had failed to honour their commitment to the UN to devote a mere 0.7 per cent of their GNP to aid Ul Haq argued that the ultimate goal of development should be to enhance human capabilities and freedoms. He believed that development should empower individuals to lead lives that they value and to have the opportunity to fulfill their potential. This perspective goes beyond traditional economic indicators such as GDP and emphasizes the importance of investing in human capital, education, healthcare, and social welfare. Ul Haq emphasized the need to measure development outcomes beyond income or wealth. He proposed the Human Development Index (HDI) as a comprehensive measure that combines indicators of health, education, and income. The HDI provides a more holistic view of development by considering factors such as life expectancy, literacy rates, and standard of living. In addition to the HDI, Mahbub ul Haq also highlighted the importance of other social indicators, such as gender equality, access to basic services, and political freedoms. He believed that a society's progress should be evaluated based on its ability to provide equal opportunities and basic rights to all individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic background. Secondi, (2008, p.30) argues that the human development paradigm performs an important service in questioning the presumed automatic link between expanding income and expanding human choices. Such a link depends on the quality and distribution of economic growth, not only on the quantity of such growth. A link between growth and human lives has to be created consciously through deliberate public policy — such as public spending on social services and fiscal policy to redistribute income and assets. This link may not exist in the automatic workings of the marketplace, which can further marginalize the poor. But they must be careful. Rejecting an automatic link between income expansion and flourishing human lives is not rejecting growth itself. Economic growth is essential in poor societies for reducing or eliminating poverty. But the quality of this growth is just as important as its quantity (Secondi, 2008, p.30). Conscious public policy is needed to translate economic growth into people's lives. How can that be done? It may require a major restructuring of economic and political power, and the human development paradigm is quite revolutionary in that respect. It questions the existing structure of power. Greater links between economic growth and human choices may require far-reaching land reform, progressive tax systems, new credit systems to bank on the poor people, a major expansion of basic social services to reach all of the deprived population, the removal of barriers to the entry of people in economic and political spheres and the equalization of their access to opportunities, and the establishment of temporary social safety nets for those who may be bypassed by the markets or public policy actions. Such policy packages are fairly fundamental and will vary from one country to another. But some features are common to all of them. Mahbub ul Haq's concept of human development emphasizes the importance of placing people

at the center of development policies. He believed that economic growth should serve as a means to improve people's lives, rather than an end in itself. His work continues to shape the discourse on development and has influenced policymakers and economists worldwide. How inequality is the biggest obstacle to human development Inequality is a fundamental issue for human development. Extreme inequalities in opportunity and life chance have a direct bearing on human capabilities. Deep human development disparities persist between rich people and poor people, men and women, rural and urban areas and different regions and groups. These inequalities create mutually reinforcing structures of disadvantage that follow people through life cycles and are transmitted across generations. This is wrong for both intrinsic and instrumental reasons. Inequality violates basic precepts of social justice, but it is also bad for growth, bad for democracy and bad for social cohesion. According to Zalukhu et al., (2021, p.7895) the result of human development in Indonesia does not equality, especially gender equality. The Human Development Index (HDI) sort by gender in the last few years shows different numbers between male and female. Nationally, during the 2010-2019 period, the HDI of male had a “high” status, while the HDI of female was still of a “medium” status. In 2019, the HDI for male was 75.96 and the HDI for female was still at 69.18. This illustrates the inequality of human development between male and female. The disparity between men and women is fuelled by continued gender inequalities in different walks of life, says the report, “People, Poverty and Possibilities: Making Development Work for the Poor”. That includes access to social and legal institutions, resources, employment and earnings, as well as social and political participation. These inequalities add to women’s poverty, the report warns, and could lead to serious consequences, not only for women themselves, but also for their families and societies at large (Zalukhu et al., 2021, p.7897). Reducing the gender gap in health and education can significantly reduce personal and household poverty and generate national economic growth, according to the report. The effects could be most felt in the poorest countries, where weak economic performance is strongly tied to gender inequality. Comparing East Asia and South Asia between 1960 and 1992, the report points out that South Asia started with wider gender gaps in health and education and closed them more slowly. If gender gaps had closed at the same rate in the two subregions, South Asia would have increased its real per capita annual growth in gross domestic product by 0.7 to 1.0 per cent. Women in many countries work longer hours than men, says the report, and at least half of women’s total work time is spent on unpaid jobs. Women’s production is a crucial factor in determining the quality of life and directly affects the health, development and overall well-being of their families. Yet, women’s voices are seldom heard in debates on financing and development (Zalukhu et al., 2021, p.7897). The invisibility of unpaid work not included in national accounts leads to lower social entitlements to women as compared to men. This inequity in turn perpetuates the gender gap in accessing needed resources. Reproductive health problems are among the main insecurities associated with poverty, says the report. Poor women have more unwanted children, since they have less access to reproductive health services and information. The possibility of a sexually transmitted infection, including HIV/AIDS, compounds the risks facing women. And gender inequality often deprives women of the ability to refuse risky practices, which leads to coerced sex and sexual behaviour, keeps women uninformed about prevention, and puts

them last in line for care and life-saving treatment. Women represented half of all HIV-positive adults in 2001, up from 41 per cent in 1997. The underdevelopment and diversity in the global south Sud, N., & Sánchez Ancochea, (2022, p.1126) depicts the making of the territorial South as dynamic, ‐ produced through the workings of history, geography and time. The underdevelopment and diversity in the global South are complex and multifaceted issues shaped by various historical, economic, social, and political factors. It is important to note that the term "global South" generally refers to countries in Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia, which are often characterized by lower levels of economic development compared to the "global North" or developed countries. Sud & Sánchez Ancochea, (2022, p.1127) argues that the colonial project of capturing the land and ‐ resources of a supposedly inferior other, and reinforcing this domination via ideas and institutions, expanded across continental space with advances in transport and energy. The Age of Discovery, a time when Europeans started exploring the world, began in the 15th century, and extended first to the Americas, and then Africa and Asia, mapping the globe for centuries to come. Many countries in the global South have a history of colonization or exploitation by colonial powers, which has had long-lasting effects on their development. Colonial powers often prioritized the extraction of resources and the establishment of exploitative economic systems, leaving these countries with limited infrastructure, political instability, and economic dependencies. Economic challenges such as poverty, limited access to capital, inadequate infrastructure, and uneven distribution of resources contribute to underdevelopment in the global South. Factors like limited industrialization, lack of diversification in the economy, and heavy reliance on primary commodity exports can hinder economic growth and stability. Social factors such as inequality, inadequate access to education and healthcare, and high population growth rates can impact development. Gender inequality, ethnic divisions, and social exclusion can also impede progress and hinder the full participation of marginalized groups in the development process. Political instability, corruption, weak governance, and conflicts are significant barriers to development in the global South. In some cases, authoritarian regimes, lack of political will, and limited capacity for effective governance hinder progress and hinder the implementation of policies that could drive development. The global South is home to diverse cultures, languages, and geographic landscapes. While cultural diversity can be a source of strength and resilience, it can also present challenges for development, such as the need for inclusive governance and the recognition of indigenous rights. Geographic factors such as landlocked countries, vulnerability to natural disasters, and climate change impacts can further complicate development efforts. Other cultures and civilizations had crisscrossed the world before the European explorers, including the Polynesians, Chinese, Arabs and Indians (Arnold, 1983). Ancient Eur- ope too had its empires (Sud & Sánchez Ancochea, 2022, p.1127). ‐ Efforts to address underdevelopment and promote sustainable development in the global South require a comprehensive approach that takes into account these factors. This includes promoting good governance, investing in education and healthcare, fostering economic diversification and industrialization, reducing inequality, and addressing the impacts of climate change. International

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cooperation, fair trade practices, technology transfer, and financial assistance can also play important roles in supporting development efforts in the global South. Gender inequality According to Zalukhu & Collyn, (2021, p.7896), gender is the differentiation of roles, positions, responsibilities, and division of labor between male and female determined by the community based on the nature of female and male that are considered appropriate according to community norms, customs, beliefs or habits. Gender is not the same as God's will. God's will be something that is determined by God, so that humans are not able to change or deny. Meanwhile, God's will be universal. Gender inequality is the inequality of roles, positions, responsibilities, and division of labor between female and male in various sectors, including education, economy, employment and other sectors. Zalukhu & Collyn, (2021, p.7896) revealed that gender inequality occurs in the fields of education, economy, social, and culture, making female unable to do self-development as their self-actualization. The author reiterates that the wage gap between male and female also reflect gender inequality. The author adds that the wage of female workers tends to be lower than male even though they both work in the formal or informal sector. In fact, in 2018, the average net wage for male was Rp. 3,064,920 per month, while the average net wage for female was Rp. 2,398,674 per month. Female fell behind in various aspects can cause losses in terms of economic growth (Zalukhu & Collyn, 2021, p.7895). They found that inequality in job opportunities hampered economic growth, and the economic growth lost due to gender inequality in employment was about four times greater than gender inequality in education. The challenges of measuring human development Since its launch, the HDI has been a useful tool of analysis for governments, the media and civil society, who employ it to evaluate and contrast human development achievements across nations, regions and groups, and over time. The creation of the HDI emerged from the tension between two approaches: one, seeking to develop a statistically pure, scientifically perfect measure, and the other, looking for a less pure, but effective measure, especially relevant to advocacy and policy-making. The creators of the HDI followed six basic principles: to measure the basic purpose of human development—to enlarge people’s choices; to include a limited number of variables for simplicity and manageability; to present a composite index rather than a plethora of separate indices; to cover both social and economic choices; to be sufficiently flexible in both coverage and methodology in order to allow gradual refinements, once better alternatives became available; and to be viable despite a lack of reliable and up to date data ‐ ‐ series. Gender inequality is one source of inequality that poses a major barrier to human development. The Human Development Report Office’s previous efforts to capture gender disparities entailed the gender- related development index or GDI (which considered inequalities by gender in the HDI dimensions) and the gender empowerment measure or GEM. Both the GDI and the GEM provoked debate about the importance of gender issues, but at the end were dropped due to criticisms about their validity as gender disparity indices (Pineda, 2011, p.2). For example, assumptions made for deriving earned income shares relied heavily on labour force participation data and gender differentials in earnings from sectors that represent a small fraction of the working population in many developing countries. The gender inequality index (GII), introduced as another experimental measure in 2010, includes aggregate data on

educational attainment, economic and political participation, and female-specific health issues. It accounts for overlapping inequalities at the national level, and is thus an important advancement over existing global measures of gender equity. According to Pineda, (2011, p.3) the MPI can be a useful and, to some extent, powerful analytical tool to measure spatial distribution of poverty in one country. When it comes to cross-country comparisons, however, the MPI has a number of drawbacks that could significantly hamper its validity and relevance for policy analysis. First of all, the number of indicators, and the aggregation and weighting of indicators for the MPI are quite subjective. Without a common unit of measure, and with the mixing of flows and stock variables, aggregation of very diverse indicators that range from child mortality to telephone ownership is hardly easy—or entirely acceptable. Second, the cost of calculating the MPI, in most cases due to lack of appropriate (including recent) data, may offset some of its clear advantages. The reactions from several countries where data was not used simply because it was unavailable have been quite strong. Further, surveys upon which the MPI is based are not designed for studying multidimensional poverty per se, so the choice of indicators is limited, and, in some cases, their quality is questionable. How the knowledge of developmental psychology will apply to everyday life, community and work. Knowledge of developmental psychology can have significant applications in everyday life, community settings, and the workplace. By understanding how individuals grow, develop, and change over time, they can enhance people’s interactions, relationships, and overall well-being. A case study to consider is parenting and Early Childhood Education. As established by Bigras et al., (2019, p.780) early childhood educators also provided estimates of all parents in their group regarding their levels of wellbeing. It should be noted that very few early childhood educators perceived that parents experienced very low and low levels of wellbeing (4.23%), while 32.3% perceived average levels of wellbeing and more than one-third (37.7%) perceived that parents felt high and very high levels of wellbeing. In everyday life and the community, developmental psychology knowledge can greatly benefit parents and educators. Let's consider the case of a parent with a toddler, first the parent will have to understand developmental milestones. Developmental psychology provides insights into typical developmental milestones and expectations. Parents can be aware of their child's physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional milestones, allowing them to support their child's growth appropriately. For example, knowing that a toddler typically begins to walk around 12-15 months, the parent can encourage and support the child's motor development through age-appropriate activities like supervised walking or crawling on safe surfaces. The second part to consider is the effective Communication. Knowledge of developmental psychology helps parents and educators communicate effectively with children at different stages. They can adjust their language, tone, and complexity of instructions based on the child's cognitive abilities. For instance, understanding that a toddler's vocabulary is limited, a parent might use simple words and gestures to communicate, making instructions more understandable and engaging for the child. Finally, early Childhood Education. Teachers and educators can utilize developmental psychology principles in designing curricula and learning environments. By considering the cognitive abilities, attention spans, and interests of children at different ages, educators can create engaging and developmentally appropriate activities (Bigras et al., 2019, p.781). For example, a preschool teacher might organize a sensory-based activity for toddlers that promotes fine motor skills and sensory exploration, aligning with their stage of development.

Conclusion The concomitant construction of the HDI offered a simple, yet multidimensional approach to comparatively evaluate the human development of various countries. But 8 years is a long time and in the intervening period, the UNDP has failed to critically reexamine and refine its own index. For the HDI to capture the sustainability dimension of human development, it will need to incorporate some mechanism for accounting overexploitation of natural resources. At the same time, issues of consumption and sustainability must also enter this discussion—as an example, whereas there can be no human development without the option of having a roof over one's head, it should be kept in mind that lining one's walls with exotic woods from the rainforest need not contribute to development.

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References Bigras, N., Lemay, L., Lehrer, J., Charron, A., Duval, S., Robert-Mazaye, C., & Laurin, E. I. (2021). Early childhood educators’ perceptions of their emotional state, relationships with parents, challenges, and opportunities during the early stage of the pandemic. Early Childhood Education Journal , 49 , 775-787. Caplan, B., Morgan, J. E., Noroña, A. N., Tung, I., Lee, S. S., & Baker, B. L. (2019). The nature and nurture of social development: The role of 5-HTTLPR and gene–parenting interactions. Journal of Family Psychology , 33 (8), 927. Kendra Cherry, M. (2011, June 7). How genes influence child development . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/genes-and-development-2795114 Nebo Sr, A. M. Obstacles to Human Development: A Qualitative Analysis of the Liberian Society. Orenstein, G. A., & Lewis, L. (2022). Eriksons stages of psychosocial development. In StatPearls [Internet] . StatPearls Publishing. Pineda, J. (2011). Measuring human progress: challenges and prospects. Nova York: United Nations Development Programme. Secondi, G. (Ed.). (2008). The development economics reader . Routledge. Sud, N., & Sánchez Ancochea, D. (2022). Southern discomfort: Interrogating the category of the global ‐ south. Development and Change , 53 (6), 1123-1150. Zalukhu, R. S., & Collyn, D. (2021). Determinant analysis of gender inequality in human development in Indonesia. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Scientiest , 4 (4).

Obstacles to Human Development

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