02.01 The Neuron (1)

Biological Bases of Psychology Journal Important Information: ● The module numbers in the course do NOT align with the module numbers in the e-text. Follow the assigned reading schedule provided in the course to stay on track. ● To maintain Academic Integrity and maximize your learning, each response should be written in complete sentences and in your own words. Please do not copy and paste from the textbook or another source. ● Questions in bold are frequently tested concepts on the AP Exam. Lesson 02.01: The Neuron ● Read Unit III, Module 9 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 9: Biological Psychology and Neurotransmission (9–2.1) What is the connection between the myelin sheath and multiple sclerosis? In multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath is damaged and degraded, leading to communication issues between nerve cells. This can cause issues and neurological symptoms. (9–2.2) Summarize the roles glial cells have in brain functioning and development. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below. Additional notes from Lesson 02.01 Types of neurons: ● Sensory neurons A sensory neuron is a nerve cell responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body's sensory organs, this can be skin, eyes, ears, and the nose, to the brain and spinal cord. ● Motor neurons A motor neuron is a nerve cell that gives signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands, controlling movement. ● Interneurons An interneuron is a nerve cell that functions as a connector in the central nervous system, making communication possible between sensory and motor neurons. Describe the parts of the neuron below.* Part of the Neuron Function Cell body - The cell body of a neuron has the nucleus and other needed parts, that makeup the neuron's control center. Dendrite - Dendrites are branched extensions of a neuron that receive incoming signals from other neurons and transmit them toward the cell body.

Axon - The axon is a long, slender projection of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body to transmit information to other neurons or target cells. Myelin sheath - The myelin sheath is a fatty insulating layer that surrounds and speeds up the transmission of electrical impulses along the axon of a neuron. Terminal buttons - Terminal buttons, also called synaptic terminals, are small structures at the end of an axon that release neurotransmitters to transmit signals to adjacent neurons or target cells at synapses. Vesicles - Vesicles are tiny sacs within a neuron's terminal buttons that store and transport neurotransmitters for release during synaptic communication. Synapse - A synapse is a specialized junction between two neurons where they communicate by transmitting chemical or electrical signals. Nodes of Ranvier - Nodes of Ranvier are small gaps in the myelin sheath along an axon, allowing for the rapid propagation of electrical impulses in a process called saltatory conduction. You have completed all required reading for Lesson 02.01. Lesson 02.02: Neural Firing ● Read Unit III, Module 9 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 9: Biological Psychology and Neurotransmission (continued) (9–2.3) What is action potential?* , action potential refers to the brief electrical impulse or signal that travels along a neuron's axon, allowing for communication between nerve cells. (9–2.4) Describe how the membrane of the axon is charged. Outside:The membrane of the axon is typically positively charged outside relative to the inside, with a resting membrane potential typically around -70 millivolts. Inside: The membrane of the axon is typically negatively charged inside relative to the outside, maintaining a resting membrane potential typically around -70 millivolts. (9–2.5) Why is the term selectively permeable used to describe the membrane of the axon?* The term "selectively permeable" is used to describe the membrane of the axon because it allows specific ions to pass through while restricting others, enabling the regulation of electrical signals. (9–2.6) Summarize the depolarization process. Review Figure 9.4 on pg. 84 of the e-text.* Depolarization is the phase during which the membrane potential of a neuron becomes less negative, typically due to an influx of positively charged ions like sodium, triggering an action potential and the transmission of an electrical signal. (9–2.7) How are the following vocabulary terms related to the neural impulse? Excitatory:

Additional notes from Lesson 02.02 Page 3: Give examples of agonists and antagonists for each of the neurotransmitters in the chart below. Neurotransmitter Function Issues- too much or too little Acetylcholine (ACh) - Agonist: Nicotine stimulates ACh receptors, leading to increased muscle contractions and cognitive effects. Antagonist: Curare blocks ACh receptors, causing muscle paralysis. Dopamine - Agonist: L-DOPA is used as a treatment for Parkinson's disease, increasing dopamine levels. Antagonist: Haloperidol, an antipsychotic medication, blocks dopamine receptors to alleviate symptoms of psychosis. Serotonin - gonist: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like Prozac increase serotonin levels to treat depression and anxiety. Antagonist: Pizotifen blocks serotonin receptors and is used to prevent migraines. Epinephrine - Agonist: Epinephrine itself acts as an agonist when released in response to stress, increasing heart rate and alertness. Antagonist: Propranolol blocks epinephrine's effects, reducing anxiety and heart rate. Norepinephrine - Agonist: Phenylephrine is used to treat low blood pressure by mimicking norepinephrine's effects. Antagonist: Phentolamine blocks norepinephrine receptors to treat high blood pressure. GABA - Agonist: Benzodiazepines like Valium enhance GABA's inhibitory effects, leading to relaxation and reduced anxiety. Antagonist: Picrotoxin blocks GABA receptors and can induce seizures. Endorphins - Agonist: Opioid drugs like morphine mimic the effects of endorphins, providing pain relief and euphoria. Antagonist: Naloxone blocks endorphin receptors, reversing the effects of opioid overdose. Substance P - Agonist: Capsaicin activates Substance P receptors, leading to the sensation of heat and pain when consuming spicy foods. Antagonist: Aprepitant blocks Substance P receptors, used to prevent nausea and vomiting. You have completed all required reading for Lesson 02.02. Lesson 02.03: The Nervous System ● Read Unit III, Module10 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 10: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems (10–1.1) Complete the chart about the components of the nervous systems in your body.* Component Summary Central NS The central nervous system (CNS) refers to the core component of the nervous system, comprising the brain and spinal cord, which is responsible for processing and integrating sensory information, coordinating bodily functions, and governing cognitive and emotional processes.

Peripheral NS Summary of PNS: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the network of nerves and sensory receptors outside the central nervous system. this connetcts the body's organs and tissues to the CNS, which helps with communication and control of the bodies functions. Explain the functions of divisions of PNS. The divisions have many functions. the somatic PNS controls voluntary muscle movements and sensory perception, while the autonomic PNS regulates involuntary bodily processes. This can be heartbeat, digesting food, and other things we do without thinking. Somatic NS: The somatic nervous system (SNS) controls the voluntary muscle movements and sensory feeling, helping a persons concious control over their bodily actions Autonomic NS: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) oversees involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, and stress responses, functioning automatically and regulating internal processes without conscious control. Sympathetic NS: The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is responsible for the "fight or flight" response, activating physiological changes such as increased heart rate and alertness during times of stress or danger. Parasympathetic NS: The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) counterbalances the sympathetic nervous system, promoting relaxation and restoring bodily functions to a normal, resting state after a stress response. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below. Additional notes from Lesson 02.03 Respond to the following prompt: While walking barefoot at the beach, you step on a broken shell. Before you can consciously process what has happened, you quickly lift your foot off the sand. Identify and explain the three types of neurons that process this pain-related information. Be sure to relate your explanation to the situation described. In the situation of stepping on a broken shell at the beach, three types of neurons come to mind. Sensory neurons detect the pain and transmit the signal to the central nervous system (CNS), where interneurons process and assess the injury's severity., motor neurons swiftly command your muscles to withdraw your foot from the sharp object, all of this occurring as a protective reflex before conscious processing of the pain takes place. You have completed all required reading for Lesson 02.03. Lesson 02.04: The Endocrine System ● Read Unit III, Module10 in the e-text to complete this lesson.

Module 11: Studying the Brain, Older Brain Structures, and the Limbic System (11–1.1) Explain how each technology is used to study the brain.* Technology How does it work? EEG EEG records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp, allowing researchers to study brainwave patterns and monitor brain activity during different cognitive tasks, providing insights into brain function and disorders. MEG MEG measures magnetic fields produced by neural activity in the brain, providing precise information about the timing and location of brain processes, aiding in the study of neural dynamics and functional brain mapping. CT CT scans use X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the brain's structure, helping researchers visualize abnormalities, tumors, or injuries within the brain, providing anatomical insights. PET PET scans involve injecting a radioactive tracer into the body to track metabolic activity in the brain, enabling the study of brain function, blood flow, and neurotransmitter activity, particularly useful for studying disorders like Alzheimer's disease. MRI MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create high-resolution images of brain structures, aiding in the examination of brain anatomy and detecting abnormalities, including tumors, lesions, and changes associated with neurodegenerative diseases. fMRI fMRI combines MRI technology with blood oxygenation measurements to visualize changes in brain activity in real-time, helping researchers study brain function during cognitive tasks and map brain regions responsible for specific functions. (11–1.2) Tyson fell of his skateboard and hit his head. His parents took him to the emergency room to be checked out. Explain how doctors could use the following scans to evaluate Tyson’s potential injuries: CT scan, MRI, PET scan. - Doctors might use a CT scan to assess Tyson's potential head injuries by creating detailed X-ray images, which can reveal fractures, bleeding, or other structural damage. An MRI could provide further information by producing high-resolution images of the brain's soft tissues, helping to detect any subtle injuries or abnormalities. Additionally, a PET scan might be employed to evaluate metabolic activity in Tyson's brain, which could help identify areas of altered function, especially if there are concerns about traumatic brain injury or changes in blood flow associated with a head injury. (11–2.1) Summarize the functions of each part of the brain listed.* Brainstem (Medulla): he brainstem, including the medulla, controls needed bodily functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure, serving as the brain's vital relay center for sensory and motor signals. Thalamus: The thalamus acts as a sensory relay station, receiving sensory information from parts of the body and sending it to the appropriate areas of the brain for further processing and perception. Reticular Formation: The reticular formation regulates a persons arousal, attention, and sleep-wake cycles, helping filter and process sensory information and maintain consciousness. Cerebellum: The cerebellum coordinates voluntary muscle movements, balance, and posture, contributing to smooth motor control and fine-tuning of movements.\ (11–3.1) Complete the chart below with information related to the brain structures of the limbic system.*

Limbic system structure Related questions Amygdala What is the primary function of the amygdala? - The primary function of the amygdala is to process and regulate emotions, particularly the assessment and response to threats and the formation of emotional memories. Hypothalamus Which bodily functions does the hypothalamus help regulate? What evidence has been gathered to explain "reward centers" in the brain? Explain reward deficiency syndrome. The hypothalamus is responsible for regulating bodily functions, including temperature control, hunger, thirst, sleep-wake cycles, and hormonal balance. It also influences emotions and behaviors, such as aggression and pleasure. Research on the brain's "reward centers" has revealed that regions like the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area respond to pleasurable stimuli, with neurotransmitters like dopamine helping in reinforcing rewarding behaviors. Reward deficiency syndrome is a theoretical concept suggesting that some individuals may be genetically predisposed to have lower dopamine release or fewer dopamine receptors in their reward centers, making them more susceptible to addiction as they seek out activities or substances to compensate for this deficiency. This notion underscores the importance of genetics and neurotransmitter imbalances in addiction vulnerability. Hippocampus What is the role of the hippocampus? What are some problems that can occur when the hippocampus is damaged? The hippocampushelps in the formation and consolidation of new memories and is integral to the brain's learning and memory processes. When the hippocampus is damaged, individuals may experience significant memory deficits, particularly in the ability to create new memories, leading to anterograde amnesia. Additionally, damage to the hippocampus can affect spatial navigation and contribute to cognitive impairments seen in conditions like Alzheimer's disease. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below. Additional notes from Lesson 02.05 Summarize the function of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are responsible for voluntary motor movements, regulating muscle tone, and helping with the execution of smooth, purposeful actions. You have completed all required reading for Lesson 02.05. Lesson 02.06: The Brain

(12–1.4) Complete the organizer with information related to the visual and auditory cortices.* Cortex Summary Visual cortex The visual cortex is a region in the brain, located in the occipital lobe, responsible for processing and interpreting visual information received from the eyes. Auditory cortex The auditory cortex, found in the temporal lobe, helps a person with processing and interpreting auditory information, including sound perception, localization, and speech comprehension. (12–1.5) What is the function the prefrontal cortex? The prefrontal cortex is primarily responsible for executive functions such as decision-making, planning, impulse control, emotional regulation, and complex cognitive processes like reasoning and problem-solving. (12–1.6) Complete the chart with information about language centers in the brain.* Structure Function Broca’s Area Broca's area, typically located in the left hemisphere of the brain, is primarily responsible for the production of speech and the coordination of the muscles involved in speech production. Wernicke’s Area Wernicke's area, typically located in the left hemisphere of the brain, is primarily responsible for language comprehension and the processing of spoken and written language. (12–3.1) Explain the concept of neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity is the brain's remarkable ability to adapt and reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, allowing it to learn, recover from injuries, and adjust to changing circumstances. Module 13: Brain Organization and the Biology of Consciousness (13–1.1) What is the function of the corpus callosum? The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and information exchange between the left and right cerebral hemispheres, allowing for coordinated functions and integration of sensory and motor activities. (13–1.2) What neurological disorder is largely remedied by performing split brain surgery? Split-brain surgery is typically performed to alleviate severe epilepsy by severing the corpus callosum, reducing the spread of epileptic seizures between the brain hemispheres. (13–1.3) Summarize how visual information processes in the brain.

Visual information is received by the retina, transformed into electrical signals, and transmitted through the optic nerve to the thalamus and then to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe, where it is processed, interpreted, and integrated into our conscious perception of the visual world. (13–1.4) Briefly explain the findings of Gazzaniga's research with the split-brain patients. Gazzaniga's research with split-brain patients revealed that the two hemispheres of the brain could operate independently, with each hemisphere processing specific information, and that the left hemisphere, in most people, dominates language and analytical tasks, while the right hemisphere excels in tasks related to spatial perception and emotional recognition. (13–1.5) Explain the differences between the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere of the brain. Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere The left hemisphere of the brain is primarily responsible for language processing, logical reasoning, analytical thinking, and fine motor skills in most individuals. The right hemisphere of the brain is primarily associated with functions such as spatial perception, creativity, emotional processing, and recognizing non-verbal cues like facial expressions and tone of voice. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below. Additional notes from Lesson 02.06 You have completed all required reading for Lesson 02.06. Lesson 02.07: Interaction of Heredity and the Environment ● Read Unit III, Modules 14-15 in the e-text to complete this lesson. Module 14: Behavior Genetics, Predicting Individual Differences (14–2.1) Explain the different between monozygotic and dizygotic twins. (14–2.2) What information has been gleaned from studies of separated twins at the University of Minnesota? (14–3.1) Define heritability. To what extent does heritability cause the differences between identical twins?* Module 15: Evolutionary Psychology, Understanding Human Psychology (15–1.1) How do evolutionary psychologists use Darwin's theory of natural selection? (15–4.1) Why is the biopsychosocial approach the best choice when examining psychology?

NREM-1 This is the transitional stage between wakefulness and sleep, this includes light sleep, muscle relaxation, and the occasional sensation of falling. NREM-2 NREM-2 is a deeper stage of sleep. During this brain activity slows, heart rate and body temperature decrease, and sleep spindles (brief bursts of rapid brain waves) occur. NREM-3 NREM-3 is the deepest stage of sleep, there is a slow-wave delta brain activity, where it is difficult to wake someone, and is needed for physical health and growth of a person. REM REM sleep is this includes rapid eye movements, increased brain activity resembling wakefulness, and vivid dreaming, .his is important to peoples cognitive function, memory, and emotional processing. (23–3.2) What changes occur in REM cycles and deep sleep as a person's night of sleep progresses?? Refer to Figure 23.4 in the e-text.* , REM cycles become longer and more frequent as the night sleep goes on, and the duration of deep sleep (NREM-3) decreases, with the first half of the night usually consisting of more deep sleep and the second half, which focuses more on REM sleep (23–4.1) Take a position: Should public high schools start school later to allow students more time for sleeping? Defend your position. I think that public high schools should start later to allow students more time for sleeping. I love being online because i can sleep in much more, which is great for my health. Research has shown that teenagers' circadian rhythms tend to shift, making it challenging for them to fall asleep early in the evening. Starting school later would align with their natural sleep patterns, improving their overall health, academic success, and well-being (23–4.2) What is the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus?* The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the body's master clock, located in the hypothalamus, is good in regulating the circadian rhythms and coordinating physiological and behavioral processes, including the sleep-wake cycle, in response to light cues received from the eyes. Module 24: Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams (24–1.1) Complete the provided chart with information about sleep disorders.* Disorder Symptoms Likely Sufferers Insomnia People will experience difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, and even struggle wake up too early. Their general productivity might be hurt by their tiredness . An example of insomnia is when someone consistently struggles to fall asleep or wakes up frequently during the night, leading to persistent sleep deprivation. Narcolepsy sudden and uncontrollable feelings of sleepiness, feeling muscle weakness, and in bad cases, sleep paralysis, and hallucinations An example of narcolepsy is an person suddenly and uncontrollably falling asleep during the day. They might fall asleep at work on the job, or in school during class, its not their choice

Sleep apnea loud snoring might happen, in their rest, one might pauses in breathing. People can wake up gasping for air, and usually feel excessive daytime tiredeness, and difficulty concentrating. A person with sleep apnea may experience pauses in breathing during sleep, causing loud snoring, choking, or gasping for air. Night terrors Night terrors usually make people wake up in fear. Some people wake up screaming, and confused. They might sweat, or cry, and their heart will beat fast because of their fear and surprise An example of night terrors is when a child dreams about a spider in their bed, and they wake up scared that its really there. Sleepwalking/talking talking during sleep,or walking around, and since the person is asleep they dont remember their activity. They can converse or mumble in their sleep (which is so scary, my cousin used to do this all the time) . A person who sleepwalks may leave their bed and walk around the house, or get up and talk even though theyre dreaming, and not actually talking to somone (24–2.1) Summarize the different theories for dreaming.* Theory Explanation Related Vocabulary Freud’s wish-fulfillment Freudian theory suggests dreams serve as outlets for repressed desires and unconscious conflicts Manifest content: Manifest content refers to the literal and recognizable elements of a dream, such as people, places, objects, and events, as reported by the dreamer. Latent content: Latent content represents the hidden, symbolic meanings and unconscious desires concealed within a dream's manifest content, according to Freudian dream analysis. Information processing dreams help process and consolidate daily experiences and information. Physiological Dreams might happen because of random neural activity and brainstem signals during sleep. Activation-synthesis Dreams come from the brain's attempt to make

increased alertness, energy, and heightened mood. Describe the impact of each drug on the brain. Cocaine: Cocaine: Cocaine increases the release of dopamine in the brain, leading to intense feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and heightened alertness. Ecstasy: Ecstasy, or MDMA, stimulates the release of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in the brain, causing enhanced mood, empathy, and sensory perception. Hallucinogens: Hallucinogens, like LSD and psilocybin, profoundly alter perception and cognition by interacting with serotonin receptors in the brain, causing vivid hallucinations and altered states of consciousness. Take a quick break from the e-text and return to the lesson. Read through the information, watch the videos, and add any notes that you think will help your understanding in the box below. Additional notes from Lesson 02.08 ‘ Contrast agonists and antagonists. Agonists are substances or stimuli that enhance or mimic the activity of neurotransmitters, while antagonists are substances that inhibit or block the action of neurotransmitters, often with opposing effects on neural activity and behavior. What is the function of a reuptake inhibitor? A reuptake inhibitor functions by blocking the reabsorption of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, then increasing the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap and prolonging their effects on postsynaptic neurons. You have completed all required reading for Lesson 02.08.