Final Exam -PHI1101K00
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University of Ottawa *
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1101
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Philosophy
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Jan 9, 2024
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NAME: Tunmise Oyedemi
STUDENT NO.: 300353979
FINAL EXAM (60/60 Marks)
PHI1101K00
Date of submission: 8
th
of December 2023 by 11:59 PM, Eastern time (at the
latest).
Open book Exam
It covers the Parts III & IV (
chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 of Chris
MacDonald and Lewis Vaughn, The Power of Critical Thinking
) of our
course.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) – (0.25 x 12 = 3 Marks)
1)What is one key difference between inductive and deductive arguments?
a) Deductive arguments can never guarantee that the conclusion is true.
b) Inductive arguments can never guarantee that the conclusion is true.
c) Inductive arguments only apply in science.
d) Deductive arguments are more useful. 2)Propositional logic is the branch of deductive reasoning that deals with the
logical relationships among which of the following?
a) Arguments
b) Disjunctions
c) Statements
d) Predicates
3)What are the four logical connectives?
a) Conjunctions, statements, disjuncts, and conditionals
b) Conditionals, disjunctions, negations, and conjunctions
c) Conjuncts, disjuncts, conditionals, and negations
d) Conjunctions, conditionals, compounds, and disjunctions
4)What is the symbolic form of a conditional?
a)
p ∨
q b)
p → q
c)
p & q d) p ~ q
5) What is the basic unit of concern in categorical logic?
a) The predicate
1
b) The statement component
c) The subject
d) The statement
6)What are the four standard forms of categorical statements?
a) All S
are P
; Some S
are P
; Some S
are not P
; No S
are P
b) All S
are P
; Some S
are P
; Some S
are not P
; All S
are S
c)All S
are P
; No S
are not P
; No S
are P
; All P
are S
d)All S
are P
; Some S
are P
; All S
are not P
; Some S
are not P
7)Inference to the best explanation is a form of inductive reasoning in which we
reason from premises about a state of affairs to what?
a) An enumerative induction
b) A deductive conclusion
c) An analogical induction
d) An explanation for that state of affairs
8)Which of the following is true about a teleological explanation?
a) It concerns the meaning of a text. b) It concerns the purpose or function of something.
c)It concerns how something is done. d)It is generally better than a theoretical explanation.
9)What is scientism?
a) The belief that science is the only path to knowledge b) The belief that science is the only path to God c) The belief that religion is the one true knowledge d) The belief that science is biased against all religions
10)The most basic critical thinking skill when it comes to health is the ability to
engage in reasoning about what?
a) Analogy b) Legal issues c) Deduction d) Causation
11)Which of the following types of fallacy is prevalent in thinking about issues
pertaining to health?
a) Denying the antecedent b)
Tu quoque c) Appeal to popularity d) Guilt by association
2
12)Which of the following is true about media reports on health-related issues?
a) They are unfailingly unreliable. b) They often exaggerate the significance of new findings. c) They rarely exaggerate the significance of new findings. d) They are unfailingly reliable.
True and False Questions (TFQ) – (0.25 x 12 = 3 Marks)
1-Categorical statements make simple assertions about categories, or classes,
of things. True
2-Propositional logic employs symbolic logic. True
3-In propositional logic, a compound statement is composed of at least three
constituent statements. False
4-There are limits to the ways in which arguers can combine deductive and
inductive arguments. False
5-An analogy can be used to argue inductively for a conclusion. True
6-An enumerative induction has the following pattern: Thing A has
properties P
1
, P
2
, and P
3
plus the property P
4
. Thing B has properties P
1
, P
2
,
and P
3
.
Therefore, thing B probably has property P
4
. True
7-Procedural, interpretive, and functional are all kinds of explanation. False
8-The logical pattern for inference to the best explanation is as follows: I’ve
noticed phenomenon Q
. E
provides the best explanation for Q
. Therefore, it is
probable that E
is true. True
9-An explanation cannot be part of an argument. False
10-Science is the same as technology. False
11-Causal claims are irrelevant to both preserving and restoring health. False
12-The problem of common-causal factors is not relevant to reasoning about
health. False
Chapter Knowledge Questions (CKQ) – (0.5 x 12 =6 Marks)
(
Minimum 80 – maximum 150 words for one answer). Less than
the minimum the penalty is 1 Mark for each question.
1-What are the four standard forms of categorical statements?
A- statement: Universal Affirmative (All S are P)
E-statement: Universal Negative (No S are not P)
I- statement: Particular Affirmative (Some S are P)
O- statement: Particular Negative (Some S are not P) 3
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2-Why is categorical logic still studied? Categorical logic is part of our everyday reasoning which is why we need to
understand its rules to have better and clearer thinking to formulate logical
conclusions that help us to construct valid and rational arguments and
understand the structure of those arguments. 3-If an argument form is valid, what does that imply about other arguments
with the same form?
If the argument is of the same form and follows the format of having a true
premise and a true conclusion then it should also be deductively valid
4-What are the four connectives in propositional logic? How are they
symbolized? What do they mean?
Conjunction (and) – p & q: This consists of two simple statements that
use the word ‘and’ to make a logical connection if and only if each of
the two-component statements is true to create a compound statement.
Disjunction (or) – p ѵ q: This uses the symbol “wedge” as a
connection between two statements that either one of the statements is
true or false otherwise which not only uses the word as a connective
but also uses: “either, neither and unless.”
Negation (not) – p ~ q: This uses the symbol “tilde” as a denial of a
statement which uses the connective word: “not”
Conditional (if – then) – p → q: These are statements which are
influenced by certain conditions and the “truth” or “false” is based on
the satisfaction of these conditions through the use of the connective
word “if-then”.
5-What is the key difference between deductive and inductive arguments?
Deductive arguments use deductive reasoning which is meant to provide
logically conclusive support where the premises are true to prove the conclusions
which are also meant to be true while an inductive argument uses inductive
reasoning that supplies only probable support on the premises for its conclusion.
6-What is enumerative induction? What is its argument pattern?
Enumerative induction makes use of an inductive method of reason from a
generalization of the group as a whole to specific individual members of a group to
conclusions.
Target group (Target population): This is where a group collection of
individuals conducts research and draws their conclusions from their
under study.
Sample (Sample members): These are the observed members of the
target group.
Relevant property (Property in a question): A property or
characteristic that is of interest to the group.
7-What is inference to the best explanation? How does it differ from
enumerative inductions?
4
Inference to the best explanation is a form of inductive reasoning that is used
as an extension of “best explanation” in which the premises explanation
provides an essential reason to justify that the explanation is correct while
enumerative inductions Enumerative induction also makes use of an
inductive method of reason but uses reasons from a generalization of the
group as a whole by deducing it to specific individual members of a group to
conclusions.
8-What is the logical pattern for an inference to the best explanation?
Phenomenon Q
E provides the best explanation for Q.
Therefore, it is probable that E is true.
9-How is science different from technology? Science seeks to acquire knowledge to create an understanding of reality
which makes use of the formulation, testing and evaluation of theories through
observation and experimentation to formulate both systematic and careful answers
while technology is the application of scientific knowledge and methods to
practical problems and issues that science only gives information and basic
research on.
10-What is scientism?
Scientism is the view that science is the only way to acquire knowledge and
excessive belief 11- What causal confusions might crop up in thinking about issues
pertaining to health?
o
Ignoring the Causal Factor: This is where information A and
information B are correlated with each other, and genuinely causally
connected, but information A doesn’t cause information B and
information B doesn’t cause information A. Rather, both information
A and information B are caused by some third factor information C,
that they share in common.
12-Why is it important to be skeptical about claims made in the media about
health care? Firstly, many reporters lack the necessary claims to conclude about anything
on health science. Secondly, not all the information they gather is complete
and most of them might push or spread lies to the viewers in order to gain
popularity. Thirdly, most of the information they spread might be from their
own personal opinions and views rather than that of an expert. Fourthly,
most of the reporters are non-experts and have no experience in the field of
health science to make claims and judgements about any piece of
information. Lastly, reporters might not speak about the overall background
information or the cause and the effects of the information.
5
Validity Checking Exercises (VCE) – (2 x 6 = 12 Marks)
(Minimum 80 – maximum 150 words for one answer). Less
than the minimum the penalty is 1 Mark for each question. Evaluate the following syllogisms by means of Venn diagrams. Be sure to
state whether the argument is valid or invalid.
1-No physical actions are chance occurrences.
All chance occurrences are random events
.
No random events are physical actions.
The argument is invalid.
2-All events are things describable by science.
All mental decisions are events.
All mental decisions are things describable by science.
This argument is valid.
3-All things describable by science are predictable events.
No free decisions are things describable by science
.
No free decisions are predictable events.
6
P- physical actions
S-random
events M- chance occurrences
P- Things describable
by science
M- events.
S- Mental Decisions
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This is an invalid argument.
4-No things describable by science are uncaused happenings.
All mental decisions are things describable by science
.
No mental decisions are uncaused happenings.
This is a valid argument.
5-No free choices are caused occurrences.
Some natural processes are not caused occurrences.
Some natural processes are not free choices.
This is an invalid argument.
7
P- predictable
events
M- things describable by science
S- free decisions.
P- uncaused happenings
M- things describable by sciences
S- mental decisions
P- free chocices
M- caused occurrences
S- natural processes
6- All free decisions are uncaused happenings.
No mental decisions are uncaused happenings. No mental decisions are free decisions.
This is a valid argument.
Truth Tables (TT) – (3 x 3 = 9 Marks)
Construct truth tables for the following arguments. Are the arguments valid
or invalid?
(1.) ~(p ∨
r)
∴
~r &
q
p
q
r
(p v r)
(p v
⁓
r)
r ⁓
r & q
⁓
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
Therefore, this argument is invalid.
2.
p ∨
q
q → r
∴
r P
q
r
p v q
q→ r
r
8
P- free decisions
M- uncaused happenings
S- Mental Decisions
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
F
Therefore, this argument is valid.
3.
p → (q ∨
r)
~r
∴
~ p p
q
r
q ѵ r
p→ (q ѵ
r)
~ r
~ p
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
Therefore, this argument is valid
Short Essay Questions (SEQ)– (27/27 Marks)
(Minimum 300 - maximum 500 words for one short essay
question
). Less than the minimum the penalty is 1 Mark for
each question.
Part 1 (10/10 Marks)
1- For the following argument, label the subject term, the predicate term, and
the middle term. Then translate each syllogism into symbolic form using S
,
P
, and M
to represent the terms (
2.5 Marks).
All apples are oranges.
All oranges are pears.
Thus, all apples are pears (2.5 Marks).
Apples: -Subject
Oranges: - Middle 9
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Pears: - Predicate
All S are M.
All M are P.
Thus, all S are P.
2- Translate the following argument into symbolic form:
Either Stephen Harper will be elected, or Justin Trudeau will be elected.
But if Stephen Harper is elected, taxes will not be raised.
Therefore, unless Justin Trudeau is elected, taxes will not be raised (2.5
Marks).
Steven Harper- Middle term
Justin Trudeau- Subject
Taxes will not be raised – Predicate.
M v S
M
P
S→ P
⸫
3- Identify the implied causal claim (conclusion) defended in the following
passage. Identify the premises offered in support of that causal claim.
Yasir and Tamara were the happiest couple I knew until after Tamara
decided to go back to school to “get a job.” She already had a “job” taking
care of the house and it’s her delusions of grandeur that messed everything
up
(2.5 Marks).
The implied causal claim and premises lie on the assumption that Tamara’s
decision to go back to school and her aspiration for a job is labelled as “
grandeur of decisions” leading to the couple's unhappiness. 4- Identify and describe a causal confusion that may be exemplified in the
following passage.
Yasir and Tamara were the happiest couple I knew until after Tamara
decided to go back to school to “get a job.” She already had a “job” taking
care of the house and it’s her delusions of grandeur that messed everything
up (2.5 Marks).
The causal confusion is misidentifying relevant factors because this
argument lacks background information to support the premise of why
Tamara decided to go back to school to “get a job”.
Part 2 (17/17 Marks)
1-Consider the following two competing explanations for the presence of
dinosaur fossils dating back hundreds of millions of years:
Explanation 1:
The presence of dinosaur fossils within the geological
record is explained by the fact that dinosaurs really did live on planet Earth
10
beginning roughly 230 million years ago, with the vast majority of dinosaur
species going extinct roughly 65 million years ago. Dinosaur fossils are the
fossilized remains of creatures that long predate the emergence of homo
sapiens
.
Explanation 2:
The presence of dinosaur fossils within the geological
record is explained by the fact that an all-powerful, all-knowing,
transcendent creator, God, put them there in an attempt to test human
beings’ faith in the biblical timeline.
Which of these two explanations is simpler? Why? (5 Marks).
Explanation One has a simpler explanation than Explanation Two because it
makes less assumptions and instead provides backed-up background
information about the evolution of Dinosaur fossils while Explanation Two tries
to use basic assumptions of supremacy and power to prove the existence of
“God” in the evolution of Dinosaur fossils because it lacks the scientific
methods to prove not only “God’s” existence but also if he has the power to
create dinosaur fossils. 2- Using your background knowledge and any other information you may
have about the subject, devise a compelling, naturalistic theory for the
following paranormal theory, and then apply the criteria of adequacy to both of
them—that is, ascertain how well the naturalist theory does in relation to its
paranormal competitor on the criteria of testability, fruitfulness, scope,
simplicity, and conservatism.
Phenomenon
: An earthquake killed 16 people and trapped scores of
climbers on Malaysia’s highest peak after a group of 10 foreigners, a week
earlier, posed naked for pictures on the peak.
Theory
: The earthquake was caused by supernatural forces enraged by the
fact that the foreigners showed “disrespect to the sacred mountain.” (5
Marks).
Theory 2: The 10 foreigners who posed naked for pictures on the peak do
not correlate with the natural occurrence. And the earthquake regularly happens
in a span of every 4 years, a recent one has killed 16 people and trapped scores
of climbers on Malaysia's highest peak.
Testability: Yes, this is testable because Theory 2 has backed up information
about the cause of the earthquake and how this cause affects the number of
people in the argument while the first theory lacks evidence and uses basic
assumptions and superstitious beliefs that can’t be tested to prove the cause of
the earthquake.
Simplicity: Yes, Theory 2 displays simplicity by using less basic assumptions to
defend its argument on the earthquake incident while the first theory has
superficial assumptions to defend its argument.
11
Scope: Yes, Theory 2 explains the observed amount of years that earthquake
regularly occurs while the first theory doesn’t explain the natural occurrence or
cause of the earthquake instead it makes us question the argument of whether
there is an actual scientific cause to a natural phenomenon. 3-Explain how the inference pattern known as modus tollens
can be
deployed in consort with controlled observation and experiment so as to
refute the following false hypothesis:
The MMR vaccine causes autism. (2 Marks).
Modus Tollens is a form of logical argument that tries to test whether the hypothesis is true but later finds it to be false.
The structure of modus tollens follows these steps:
If P, then Q.
Not Q.
Therefore, not P.
So, in the example, it tries to explain that:
If the MMR vaccine causes autism (P), then everyone who receives the MMR vaccine will develop autism (Q).
There are individuals who have received the MMR vaccine and have not developed autism (Not Q).
Therefore, the MMR vaccine does not cause autism (Not P).
In this argument, we have to prove that a large sample of individuals who have received the MMR vaccine have developed any signs of autism. If we find even one individual who has received the MMR vaccine and has not developed autism, we start questioning our initial assumption as we are put into a situation of denying it. This questioning of the initial assumption allows us to use modus tollens: If the MMR vaccine causes autism, then everyone who receives the MMR vaccine should develop autism. We have found someone who received the MMR vaccine and did not develop autism. Therefore, it is not true that the MMR vaccine causes autism.
4-Why, from the point of view of the criteria of adequacy, is evolution a
more conservative theory than “young earth creationism”? (
5 Marks).
From the perspective of the criteria of adequacy, evolution is a more
conservative theory than "young earth creationism" for specific reasons.
Firstly, evolution has a greater explanatory scope and power. It explains a
wider range of phenomena such as the fossil record and the observed
instances of evolution in action and it achieves that explanation in a more
detailed and precise way. Secondly, evolution is more reasonable. It is
consistent with what we know from other fields of science, such as genetics.
But young earth creationism contradicts much of what we know from these
fields. Thirdly, evolution is a simpler theory. It does not require us to assume
the existence of supernatural entities or events, whereas young earth
12
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creationism does. Finally, evolution is more testable. It makes predictions
that can be tested through empirical observation. Young earth creationism,
on the other hand, often makes claims that are not testable in this way.
Because of these reasons, evolution is a more conservative theory than
young earth creationism from the use of the criteria of adequacy.
13