LIBS (Cults and Terrorism) Module 5 Notes

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M ODULE 1: D EFINING THE C ULT P HENOMENON How do we perceive cults? Research shows that the majority of cults are focused on:  Nature and healthy living  Human rights  Philosophy and knowledge  Religion  Scientific discovery  Friendship  Sense of belonging Common misconceptions popular in the media and entertainment industries include:  Human sacrifice  Witches or devil worship  Abuse  Death Although there have been some deaths as a result of groups that have been named ‘cults,’ these are extremist groups and they are relatively rare occurrences. What is a Cult? Defining a cult has been a complex task undertaken by academics and researchers from across many disciplines. Sociologists, anthropologists, historians, religious and political leaders/scholars and the media still debate the definition today. This is because there are many different types of cults, and no two are exactly alike. Definition For this course, we will use a broad definition for a cult that encompasses commonalities observed across the different disciplines. This will give us a good start for investigating the cult phenomenon. A cult is a group that breaks from the traditions of the society in which it develops, and it derives authority in scriptures, social/cultural influences, science, or inspired leaders. Breaking it Down This definition tells us that cults:  Have ideas or ways of living that are different from the majority of society around them  Believe their ideas or ways of living are justified by some sort of source or expert with enough power to influence followers  Can be inspired by a variety of things, including religious or political ideas, science-based assumptions, or charismatic (charming and persuasive) leaders that appear to hold knowledge

Components of a Cult  A unique system of beliefs (or ideology)  Charismatic leaders (leaders that can inspire devotion of others)  A sense of community, sometimes including initiations, memberships, and/or communal living  Rituals or ceremonies that are controversial, unconventional, or still evolving  A promise of physical, mental or spiritual enlightenment, meaning, or knowledge Cults as Social Movements What’s the Difference? As we reflect on the definition of cult, and the components of cult activity, we see from the examples in our critical thinking exercise that other social groups can have similar characteristics. So, what makes cults different from other religious, political, scientific or personality-based groups? A Look at the Continuum From Mainstream to Extreme Mainstream social institutions and social movements lie on a continuum. Social institutions are well established groups that align with mainstream expectations. Social movements are further away on the continuum, as practices differ from typical behaviour within their social/cultural context. The diagram below helps to break down the continuum. We will refer to this continuum throughout the course. Cult Movements A substantial amount of the research done on cult movements has been done by those studying religion. This is because, although there are a wide variety of cults, many take inspiration from religious teachings. We will study cults that are:  Religious  Quasi-religious  Secular

Mainstream Religion vs. Religious Movements A religion is a system of faith and worship that helps to explain the world and provides guidance for beliefs, behaviours, and actions. A religion often includes some concept of a greater being or beings (gods) (Ungvarsky, 2015). There are thousands of religions being practiced in the world today by religious groups. In this course, we will not be debating the legitimacy of these different religions, big or small. Instead, we will look at religious groups in the context of the society they are operating in to determine if they are a mainstream group that aligns with societal practices, or a religious movement. A religious movement is a social movement that tries to cause change in a system of beliefs. This could be to break away from societal norms, or to stop changes to traditional values and practices (Stark and Bainbridge, 1979, pg. 124). Types of Religious Groups To understand religious cults, we will look at 4 different types of religious groups: religious institutions, sects, cults, and extremists. For religious institutions, sects, and cults, we will use definitions provided by experts Stark and Bainbridge in the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (1979).  Religious Institution A religious institution has a social structure, norms, values and activities that are aligned with the social functions of the society in which it operates. They often help to define the social norms of an environment and adapt to societal changes. They try to align with the society in which they operate and are considered mainstream.  Sects Sects are religious movements that are closely tied to a religious institution operating within the same societal context. They will hold similar beliefs to a mainstream religious institution, however they have a leader (and other followers) that left the mainstream religion. They normally present themselves as being the authentic or renewed version of the religious institution, which they believe to have strayed from the correct interpretation of the religion practiced.  Religious Cults Religious cults are religious movements that break significantly from the traditions within the society in which they operate. They may use elements of a religious institution from elsewhere in the world that are adapted for the new environment, or they may be so different from mainstream beliefs that they are considered new innovations. These are also referred to as New Religious Movements (NRM). We will talk about NRM’s in more detail in Module 2.  Religious Extremists The fourth type of religious group, religious extremists, can come from a religious institution, sect or cult. However, where religious institutions and movements often bring guidance and positivity to those devoted to a faith, these groups push the boundaries of belief systems, often resorting to illegal or violent action in the name of religion. These destructive groups are a minority, and although they may say they are tied to religious institutions or movements, they are rarely a representation of the belief systems they claim to represent.

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They use the authority of religious scriptures to appeal to others and justify their actions. We will discuss motivations and justifications for the illegal or violent activity of extremists later in this course. When the violence or extremism is not condoned by a given religious institution, it is often claimed that these groups are ‘sects’ or ‘cults’ because that institution wants to distance the acts from their mainstream practice. Using the term ‘cult’ in a negative context minimizes a group’s legitimacy, and may discredit them (Bromley and Cowan, 2015, pg. 10). Because these extreme actions are often a focus point for the media and pop culture, words like ‘cult’ become associated with extremism. This alignment with extremism is a misuse of the term; it is the reason most experts now use the term 'new religious movement' instead of 'cult' when referring to religious social movements. To Sum Up… Religious institutions, sects, and cults all have their own ways of interpreting the world and operate with a dedication to their faith. They are normally peaceful, and their major differentiating factor is how in sync with mainstream society they are. Quasi-Religions and Secular Movements Quasi-Religious Movements ‘Quasi’- means partially or seemingly. Therefore, a quasi-religious movement means that there is some reference or basis in religious text or belief, however religion is not the main focus. We will see cases later in this course that are quasi-religious. For example, we will study a group called the Peoples Temple. Although the Temple adopts passages from the bible and has a leader that preaches to his followers, the movement is not about a deity or god, but about racial and social equality. A cult or an extremist group are often quasi-religious. A religious institution or sect are unlikely to be quasi- religious. Mainstream Secular Groups vs. Secular Movements To describe something as secular is to say that it is not connected with religious or spiritual things. Secular social institutions and social movements include those devoted to political ideas, scientific-based theories, or charismatic personalities, among others. The same methodology that we applied to religious groups can be applied to secular groups – mainstream secular institutions will be closely aligned with social norms, secular movements will seek to change those mainstream beliefs, and extremist groups will use illegal or violent means for a cause that is secular in nature.

Moving on the Continuum Change Over Time Now that we understand a cult is a social movement that is disconnected from mainstream society, we can also see that a cult may not always stay that way. One thing that we can always count on is that societies evolve and change. Religious or secular social movements or groups have been known to influence the development of societies. All religions, political parties, and scientific theories were new at one point, some being accepted as mainstream within a society or societies. Remember, mainstream ideas, attitudes or activities are believed and/or practiced by most people in that society or accepted as a legitimate social group by that majority. Mainstream does not mean a belief or practice is right or wrong, simply that it is normal in a given environment. Cult Movements in Context Right and Wrong? In the same way that ‘mainstream’ does not indicate if things are right or wrong, the words ‘cult’ or ‘sect’ do not indicate if a group is good or bad. These groups can be religious, quasi-religious, or secular, and provide meaning, hope, and a sense of community to followers. In this course, we will use some of the most provocative, well-known, and in some cases, violent examples to explore the cult phenomenon. These cases are interesting to read about and, in many instances, have had the most research done to help us understand the example in more depth. However, we must always keep in mind that most sects and cults are peaceful groups that simply practice beliefs outside of the mainstream. In future modules, we will look at different cult examples as well as frameworks proposed by experts that help us to identify different types of cults. Module 1 Summary In this module, we have learned a broad definition of a cult and some typical components of cult activity. A challenge for studying cults will be the lack of a singular definition. However, we have explored how social institutions, social movements (including sects and cults) and extremist groups are defined according to the mainstream or normal practices of the society in which they operate. We have discussed how, despite the popular perception of cults, most are peaceful social movements that don’t quite align with mainstream beliefs, or beliefs widely recognized in their environment. In our next module, we will look at the cult phenomenon throughout history and you will have the opportunity to identify components of cult activity.

Module 2: History of the Cult Phenomenon Every Cult has a Focus In this module, we will review examples of cults throughout history. As we review this selection of cults, we will see themes or patterns related to the general idea, focus or inspiration of each group. Identifying the focus of a cult or movement serves as a building block to understanding ideologies that, as discussed in Module 1, are a key component of cult activity. Themes from Ancient Times to the Present Figure 1 is a framework that illustrates four major themes found in the examples of this module. These include:  A focus on theism, the idea of a supreme being and/or deities;  A focus on politics, with the primary interest of the group being in political ideology and action;  A focus on metaphysics, which is a philosophy that tries to identify a firm foundation for understanding the world and that deals with concepts such as being, knowing, identity, time, and space. Although metaphysics focuses on concepts beyond the natural world, included in this theme can be the ideas of a deeper, spiritual connection with nature, and the idea that all things are connected. Individuals may fulfill their potential through positive thinking and spiritual enlightenment; and  A focus on psychotherapy and science as tools to help a person or group initiate change, overcome challenges, or elevate their position mentally, physically, or spiritually. Some examples may align with one theme, while others may have overlapping focuses. Often, a movement’s focus will be a hint to their primary motivator, belief, or ideology. Being able to identify a movement’s theme will help later in the course when we will be identifying primary and secondary motivators within a group. It can also help you to identify a group’s unique system of beliefs, which is one of the components of cult activity!

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Cults in Ancient History How Old is Ancient? Some of the earliest cult activities have been documented in records dating back to ancient history. But how old is ancient? Exact dates describing the term ancient history vary in the works of different historians. Often, the starting point coincides with the earliest recorded events – in other words, when written records began. Timing of the earliest written records vary across cultures but happened within a calendar period referred to as BCE (Before Common Era). One year BCE, is one year before the year 1 of the calendar we use today. So, 200 BCE is 200 years before year 1, which is more than 2200 years ago. The examples of ancient cults used for this course will include those that existed in the BCE period and have some form of written record of their history. Fun Fact There is evidence of cult activity pre-dating recorded events! For example, in 2017, researchers claimed to find the first “skull cult” in Turkey. They unearthed skulls that had been carved into; evidence, they said, that people of the Neolithic period would “…deflesh and carve up human skulls shortly after death for ritual purposes” 11,000 years ago (Osborne, 2017, para. 1). However, with no written records, we will never know why. Examples in Ancient History: Mystery Cults Greece and Rome saw the emergence of secret cults, or mystery cults, which provided alternative religious options to official, city-state religion. Those that were in mystery cults were initiated, and anything they saw, heard, or said within the cult was forbidden to outsiders. The secret rituals conducted by these cults were called mysteries, and were intended to help people attain a clearer perception of the world, as well as spiritual transformation (Papaioannou et. al, 2012, pg. 68). Eleusinian Mystery Cult The mysteries at Eleusis were intended to be a simulation of the stories of the goddess Demeter and her daughter, Persephone. Persephone, was abducted by Hades and taken to the Underworld. Demeter searched for her daughter and unable to find Persephone, her anger led to the failure of crops. The Elusinian mysteries include a journey from Athens to Eleusis, with initiation into the cult through a re- enactment of the descent to the Underworld, and the search for Persephone. Because Demeter was believed to be the goddess of birth, growth, and regeneration of nature, performing the mysteries were seen as crucial to survival (Keller, 2009, 29). This mystery cult focuses on deities and their impact on the world, and best aligns with the theistic theme of our framework. Cult Components: Mystery Cults Recall the components of a cult identified in the last module. In mystery cults, we can identify the following components.  A sense of community, sometimes including initiations, memberships, and/or communal living  Rituals or ceremonies that are controversial, unconventional, or still evolving  A promise of physical, mental or spiritual enlightenment, meaning, or knowledge

Examples in Ancient History: Ruler Cults Living Gods The idea of rulers being a living god, or descended from a god, was often used to consolidate, legitimate and maintain power. Caesar Augustus and Alexander the Great were known to be leaders with personality cults ; meaning they had dedicated followers that saw their authority to be ultimate. Cult Components: Ruler Cults In ruler cults we can clearly identify the following component:  Ruler cults all have charismatic leaders that can inspire the devotion of others. The Ptolemies The Ptolemies were Macedonian rulers in Egypt. After Alexander the Great’s death, the Ptolemies followed his example, creating ruler-cults in their name, and using other religious cults for political ends (Wellendorf, 2008, pg. 33). These cults of personality focus both on theism and politics and are a good example of aligning with the Theistic and Political areas of our framework Ruler cults, also known as personality cults, of this era often mix both theism and politics into their focus. This is because, like Alexander or the Ptolemies, these leaders were seen as living gods (theism), and they used that status to further political gains (politics) Cults in the Common Era The Common Era, or CE, begins on year 1 of the calendar we use today. Next, we will review examples of sects and cults within the Common Era that were founded before the 20 th century. Let’s see what themes we can identify. Thinking Back Remember our definition of cult from Module 1: a group that breaks from the traditions of the society in which it develops and derives authority in scriptures, social/cultural influences, science, or inspired leaders. As we review cults in the common era, you will see many of them derive authority in religious scriptures that are mainstream within the larger social environment. Examples in the Common Era: Inspired by Western Scriptures Some religious movements in the Common Era were inspired by Christian scriptures. The Shakers The Shakers emerged out of the 18th century, following a period of unrest and division in the Church of England. Fleeing persecution in England, the Shakers, led by a woman named Ann Lee, settled in New York in 1774. Lee claimed to have visions that revealed messages from God, including the message that sex was sinful, resulting in Shakers requiring celibacy of all members. She also claimed that everything had both a male and female nature, leading her followers to believe she was the female half of Jesus, and the second coming of Christ. The Shakers earned their name through manifesting holy visions through dance in which they would tremble and shake. The group was also known for speaking in tongues, rumoured brainwashing, a commitment to pacifism, and handcrafted furniture (Ungvarsky, 2014).

Mormonism The Church of Latter-Day Saints believes that Christianity no longer reflects the original teachings of Jesus, and that they must be restored. When first established, controversial practices of the Mormons included baptising the dead, and allowing polygamy (polygamy is now banned). Although some considered it a religious movement in its early days, the church is now recognized by mainstream society, and is a religious institution with about 15 million members (Ruth, 2017). Cult Components: Shakers and Mormons In the Common Era, both the Shakers and Mormons exhibited the following components:  Charismatic leaders (leaders that can inspire devotion of others)  A sense of community, sometimes including initiations, memberships, and/or communal living  Rituals or ceremonies that are controversial, unconventional, or still evolving  A promise of physical, mental or spiritual enlightenment, meaning, or knowledge Examples in the Common Era: Inspired by Eastern Scriptures Other cults in the Common Era were inspired by Eastern scriptures. The Assassins The Nizari Ismailis branched off from Islam. They were led by a spiritual leader, the Man on the Mountain, from the 11th century (1001-1100; they captured their first castle in the year 1090) until the 13th century (1201-1300; exact dates for their fall are unclear). They had elaborate initiation ceremonies and relied on guerrilla warfare and espionage as they were smaller than their Islamic and Christian enemies. However, the name “assassins” is believed to be derived from the Arabic word hashishi, insinuating regular drug users, not murderers for hire (Tesch, n.d.). The legends of the assassins brought back to Europe can still be found in pop culture today, including the Assassins Creed video game series and movie. Cult Components: The Assassins The Nizari Ismailis group had the following components:  Charismatic leaders (leaders that can inspire devotion of others)  A sense of community, sometimes including initiations, memberships, and/or communal living  Rituals or ceremonies that are controversial, unconventional, or still evolving  A promise of physical, mental or spiritual enlightenment, meaning, or knowledge Cults in the 20th Century Shifting Focus The 20th century includes the years 1900 – 1999. Cults’ connection to deities (or gods) minimized in the 20th century, as various areas in the world became more secular. Media coverage brought a new dynamic to the understanding of cult activity. New Religious Movements Scholars around the world began to abandon the term ‘cult’ in favour of ‘new religious movements.’ The study of new religious movements (NRMs) grew substantially with the growing negativity toward the words ‘cult’ and ‘sect’ through the latter half of the 20th century (Lewis, 2016). In the Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements (2006), Peter Clarke defined the concept of new religion as new spiritual movements that:

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 Have unconventional sacred symbols  Incorporate teachings of a relationship between the spiritual and the psychological or scientific  Identify new ideas or rules around belonging or membership in a movement  Interpret the idea of transcendence in new ways Let's review examples from the 20th century to see how they fit in our conceptual framework for cult themes and Continuum of Social Alignment. Examples in the 20th Century: The Occult Beginnings as an Esoteric Movement The occult started as an esoteric movement, meaning it was only shared with initiated members. Although commonly associated with demonic spirituality, there were many occult groups and teachings through the Common Era, including movements that involved aspects of astrology, Tarot, and magic. While these were hidden practices once, the 20th century has made various occult teachings accessible through books and the internet. Ordo Templi Orientis The Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO) is a movement based in sexual magic and tantric learning. In the late 1970s, the OTO registered itself as a religious organization in the US, winning court cases related to the legitimacy of the group. Rituals of initiates include fasting, with the exception of alcohol and drugs, and sexual intercourse. Rituals must be performed in temples and using magical invocations and formulas. While some rituals parody mainstream Christianity, the movement itself focuses on individualism, self-awareness, and personal growth (Clark, 2006, pg. 474). This example combines focuses of the metaphysical and the theistic. Cult Components: Ordo Templi Orientis The OTO movement illustrates the following components:  Rituals or ceremonies that are controversial, unconventional, or still evolving  A promise of physical, mental or spiritual enlightenment, meaning, or knowledge Examples in the 20th Century: Personality Cults The personality cult generally refers to the enhanced status and authority of a man or woman. This glorification is achieved through:  the deliberate creation of a pleasing or relatable public persona;  the telling of accolades and achievements;  charismatic encounters and speeches;  propaganda; and,  the uses of symbolism and ritual. Stalin’s Cult of Personality Some of the most notable and impactful personality cults can be found in 20th century politics with leaders such as Joseph Stalin. From 1929 to 1953, Stalin was the communist dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). He turned the USSR into an industrial and military superpower which helped the United States and Europe defeat Hitler’s Germany in World War II (1930-1945). The USSR under Stalin was later seen as the biggest threat to the US and Europe at the beginning of Cold War (1946 – 1991).

Cult Components: Stalin's Personality Cult In Stalin's personality cults we can clearly identify the following component:  Stalin’s personality cult is clearly a movement with a charismatic leader that can inspire devotion of others. Examples in the 20th Century: Deadly Beliefs Heightened media coverage of cults since the 1970s has focussed on tragedies that have occurred in new religious movements. This has perpetuated an overwhelming dark view, and even created an anti-cult movement. Let’s look at some examples of cult activity highly reported by the media. The Peoples Temple The Peoples Temple was inspired by Protestant beliefs, but was significantly different than existing mainstream religions, having incorporated ideologies of socialism and racial integration into their faith. These ideologies did not align with the general sentiments of the United States during a time of segregation and war. The Temple’s leader, Jim Jones, believed in speaking in tongues, the use of emotional and physical abuse against followers, and miracles (such as claims of successful faith healing). Followers believed that they could reach a higher spiritual status through following the Temple’s teachings. The Peoples Temple and followers migrated to a dedicated commune in Guyana in the late 1970’s, faced with a growing anti-cult movement and criticism in the United States. However, the Temple began to face monetary problems, and the media began to publish negative articles, including rumors of brainwashing and abuse. Unfortunately, a final push of government investigations led to the Temple’s founder and leader inciting mass-suicide, giving his followers juice containing cyanide and tranquilizers, killing over 900 people (Clarke, 2006, pg. 490). Heaven’s Gate Followers believed their leader had been told by voices from UFOs that they would die, be resurrected, and taken to heaven on another planet by spaceship. To be worthy of this journey, followers were required to give up property, follow strict rules, and become celibate. Some members were castrated to remove any sexual desire (Baumgartner, 2013). This cult had a clear focus aligned with the psychotherapy/science theme of our framework.

Module 3: Module 4: Module 5: Figures/Charts/References

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LIBS (Cults and Terrorism) Module 5 Notes

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