Week 3 - Logic, Critcial Thinking, + Ethical Theory Pt1
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LECTURE 3: LOGIC, CRITICAL THINKING, + PT 1 OF ETHICAL THEORY
6 Most Common Deceptions in Twitter Bullshit
Twitter is the most influential space in health and people put bad or good theories
about health. 6 biggest fallacy are the:
1.
Confirmation Bias a.
Not a logical fallacy but a “cognitive bias” b.
More likely to believe something that is phrased to our liking c.
Looking for confirmation of your existing beliefs and not looking for
more objective supported answer d.
Example: Chickenpox vaccine i.
Suggests chickenpox vaccine is a
business and getting chickenpox
increases shingles ii.
Big conspiracy and farm-up e.
Example: Shingles Fact Sheet i.
Reality: shingles comes from getting
chickenpox, so it can reduce
shingles f.
Doesn’t mean research and financial
interested are completely related g.
E.g You have to bias that pork is amazing to get funded from the institute that is supporting the relations between the nutrition of pork between the poor and rich
i.
Confirmation bias –They are looking people that are endorsing the quality of product 2.
Genetic Fallacy a.
Dismissing arguments strictly because of their sources with no other reasons b.
Encourages to look at its merits or flaws rather than where it comes from c.
Example: Trump Supporters i.
We don’t properly dismiss them because of our instant negative views 3.
Ad hominem a.
Responding based on criticism of a person or group representing an opposing viewpoint b.
Different than genetic fallacy
c.
Simple responses as a curse or a rebuttal d.
Example: Tim Noakes i.
Malhotra is a big advocate for keto and yet the British
Obese dietitian (obese herself) goes against this diet ii.
Ed Hominem
him stating that the dietitian is fat.
(rude and insulting but nothing else)
iii.
Genetic Fallacy
he would listen to her if she was
“skinner”
1.
Her BMI is a single factor to determine if he would listen iv.
How you know and what you look are not related
4.
Bifurcation
2
a.
Complex situations must always be into binary positions (2 positions) on an issue b.
Eliminate any middle solution (either this or this)
c.
Example: Keto guy is hunky vs vegetarian is ugly
i.
If you do other diets to improve your health, you would be bad = bad anecdote d.
Example: Abortion
i.
Splits into groups of those who support vs don’t support (control women bodies)
ii.
In-between, there is concerns, but the debate is so polarized that people don’t want to get involved iii.
Obstetrician that performs abortion, and strongly believe that women should choose 1.
He would rather create a prevention = better choice than treatment a.
Increase birth control = reduce the number of abortions b.
This (main) statement was not controversial 2.
People didn’t hear this statement, but the idea of ‘eliminating abortion’
a.
He’s a betrayal and didn’t stick to mindlessly to one side 5.
Appeal to Authority a.
Someone bases his/her argument on his/her own knowledge or experience, not a factual evidence b.
Based on opinion and utilizing their educational background as “proof” c.
Example: Western-affiliated ethics prof says she faces “imminent dismissal” for refusing COVID-19 i.
Express strong opinions against vaccine mandates – bases arguments on her academic backgrounds
ii.
Emphasizes her credentials, relying on her degree to support her stance
iii.
One’s biography is not sufficient justification for an argument d.
Example: Twitter Doctors i.
Posed as physician, demonstrating their knowledge to promote their ideologies ii.
Dr. Aga advocated for low-carb diet based on being a doctor + showing personal transformation without scientific evidence iii.
Former Dr. Shawn Baker stated he never took testosterone but advocates red meat to increase muscle mass 6.
Questionable Cause a.
Arguer gives insufficient evidence for a claim that one thing is the cause of another. There are 3 subtypes: i.
Post hoc fallacy 1.
Assumes without REASON that
the 1
st
event was the cause of
the 2
nd
ii.
Mere correlation Fallacy 1.
Assumes without EVIDENCE
that a single condition/event is
the cause of an effect when
there is other contributing
causes
3
2.
E.g meat consumption in Japan ≠ life expectancy
iii.
Oversimplified cause fallacy 1.
E.g Joseph shared life changes appearance, which is likely he changed his diet. But maybe being a carnivore in the short-term, he was able to gain muscle for 6-months 2.
Gave a list of things he changed, but the mainly eating red meat. Ethics
Questions of right or wrong conduct/ what needs to be refrained?
Issues of rights and obligations and how these are related to the social setting.
Rosa Parks o
Did not give up a seat for the white person o
If you said that complying with the law was ethical, then she was unethical o
But this was a case of racism (white supremacy)
Incorrigible: Velma Demerson o
Ontario white women could not have interracial marriage with Asian men
o
Wasn’t just discriminated by the people o
Ontario created a law to break these relationships o
Demerson talk about how she spent 2 years for having a child with an Asian man after WWII
o
This would be considered unethical; she broke the law Meta-Ethical Approaches 1.
Ethical objectivism a.
Ethical objectivism asserts that ethical judgement have objective truths b.
Things are morally right or wrong depending on moral facts
c.
Moral facts exists independently of our subjective personal and cultural opinions d.
Historical examples show that moral certainty (ethical objectivism) had harmful actions i.
Nazi Germany and Holocaust 1.
Nazi involved in mass murder 2.
Justification of their acts based on their ethical beliefs raises questions about their inherent moral limits ii.
Imperialism and Colonialism 1.
European powers were driven by economic interest and cultural superiority 2.
If ethical objectivism were universally accepted, it should have prevented exploitative and oppressive actions iii.
Cultural Genital Mutilation 1.
Genital mutilation are deeply rooted in specific cultural contexts, raise questions about the universality of ethical standards iv.
Slavery in Historical Contexts
1.
These ethical objectivism suggests that ethical norms are subjected to historical, cultural, and social influences
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2.
Not being fixed and universal objectives due to the changes in moral acceptability of slavery e.
Reasoning in ethical objectivism, we can: i.
Know about them – Similar to a scientific method for determining moral facts ii.
Speak meaningfully about them – evaluate situations objectively, free from biases, and arrive at the correct ethical judgement iii.
Reason about them iv.
Resolve disagreement appeal to them 1.
BS detector – discerns between authoritative information and unreliable
content when forming ethical arguments f.
Tenets of Objectivism i.
Cognitivist – ethical reality we can know and speak about meaningfully ii.
Rationalist – ethical disputes can be rationally resolved by logic and reasoning iii.
Absolutist – An objective right or wrong answer for every ethical question g.
Facts come in varieties i.
Ethical naturalism 1.
Moral facts are natural factors 2.
Observable
3.
Measurable features of the natural world 4.
Examples: a.
Measurement of happiness or observable benefits as indicators of moral goodness b.
Ethical naturalism aligns with observable, measurable, and natural phenomena ii.
Non-naturalism
1.
Moral facts
2.
Not observable of the natural world (require specialized intuition) 3.
Example
a.
“morally good” is determined by religious/God commands 2.
Ethical relativism a.
Definition: Ethical statements are cognitively meaningful when you’re from that culture, and understand their belief system b.
Ethical relativism denies objective moral facts c.
Ethical statements are true or false relative to a subjective POV i.
Ethical truths are subjective and vary between cultures, groups, or individuals d.
3 Scopes of Ethical Relativism i.
Person 1.
Rejects personal relativism; ethics is communal 2.
Individual ethical views influenced by cultural, communal, and societal ii.
Culture or society 1.
Ethical understanding is beyond the community
2.
Shared values impact moral perspectives iii.
Historical or situational context 1.
Broader societal influences on ethical viewpoints
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2.
Historical context, nations, groups contribute to varied ethical perspectives 3.
Ethical non-cognitivism a.
Definition: Ethical statements are opinions without FACTUAL validation b.
Draws analogy to aesthetic preferences; opinion-driven, not evidence-based c.
Non-cognitivism viewed as less viable due to impracticality in guiding behavior Ethical Theory
Ethical theory provides more moral evidence
o
Clear o
Rational o
Systematic o
Defensible
Requirements for Ethical Theory 1)
Epistemological Requirements a.
Provide knowledge b.
Based on evidence + accountable to evidence (falsifiable or verifiable)
c.
Rely on observations and context for ethical understanding 2)
Logical Requirements a.
Consistent across similar situations b.
Ethical theories must exhibit logical coherence 3)
Practical Requirement a.
Must be livable b.
“ought implies can” – thoeires should be practically applicable Some Popular Approaches
Ethical Egoism & Psychological Egoism o
Psychological egoism (descriptive)
Descriptive
Not something should do, but it WILL happen
Reflects observation rather than normative ethical stance o
Ethical egoism (prescriptive)
Individuals act in their self-interest
Rational pursuit of one’s own well-being
Ayn Rand is a proponent of ethical egoism
Ethical egoism is based on what you should do what is best for you
The overall affect would be the greater good
Ethical egoism prescribes self-interested action, while psychological egoism describes the observed tendency of individuals to act in tehri self-interest The Darly-Batson Good Samaritan Experiment
6
Involves a person left for dead, ignored by morally upright individuals until a less esteemed person helps
Emphasizes the cultural significant of “Good Samaritan”
Took place in an Episcopalian seminary, training future priests
Half of the Seminarist were told they were late o
Those believed they were late = less likely to help the distress person o
Experiment aimed to reveal the impact of time constraints on altruistic behaviour Psychological egoism
Factor of influencing behaviour
Focuses on self-interest even when knowledge of ethical principles is present
Criticism of Psychological Egoism
Challenge o
Individuals prioritize self-interest over ethical considerations
Irrefutability o
Simon Blackburn’s argument against psychological egoism
Ought Implies Can Principle o
Emphasizes that ethical expectations must be achievable AUDIO: CONSEQUENTIALISM BY PHILIP PETIT Introduction
Dilemma Scenario: CIA is aware of Al Qaida plotted attack, contemplating of using torture to prevent an attack
Definition of Consequentialism: advocates the best outcomes, emphasizing consequences Critique of Consequentialism
Common criticism: provides quick answers but allows individuals to be used as means to an end
Critics argued it neglects consideration of justice, integrity, and respect
Philip Petit challenges these criticism, asserting that consequentialism can address these concerns
Defining Consequentialism
Core Tenet: The right choice is the one that produces the best consequences
Diverse consequentialist theories exists, differing in how they define and prioritize “goods”
Non-Consequentialism Objections:
Non-consequentialism rejects the idea that the right choice is always right
Bernard William raises concerns about objections to consequentialism
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o
Integrity objection:
consequentialism may lead to individuals to compromise the integrity for the greater good o
Respect objection:
consequentialism may require treating individuals as mere means to achieve positive outcomes Resolving Integrity Objection
Petit values the of integrity and respect are intrinsic goods within consequentialism framework
Advocates for the cultivation of virtues and establishment of laws that support these intrinsic goods
Legal and Normative Framework o
Laws and norms establishment align with consequentialist value and support the intrinsic goods integrity and respect Resolving Respect Objection
Respect seen as a positive aspect
valuable good, contingent on adhering to established norms
Consequentialist can endorse the promotion of respect by establishing norms and laws against dishonesty, coercion, violence,
Involves cultivating virtues and promoting adherence to societal norms to uphold respect Balancing Consequentialism and Robust Values
Robust values: enduring, unyielding moral values that transcend situational contingencies o
E.g love, friendship, honesty and justice
Virtues are essential for producing these goods for others and contribute to societal well-being
Petit advocates for a balanced approach = integrate consequentialism with character virtues and societal norms
Relationship between values and virtues o
Petit argues that to honesty + justice must be included to have love, friendship, honesty, and justice
Consequentialism aligns with virtue cultivation as virtues contribute to the production of valuable outcomes Roles of Laws and Norms
Societal Framework o
Petit emphasizes the importance of laws and norms that align with consequentialist values, providing a framework for individuals to exhibit virtues and produce positive outcomes
Respect and integrity o
Laws and norms safeguard respect and integrity, ensuring that individuals can trust each other and maintain constancy in their character across changing circumstances Addressing the Torture Dilemma
8
Petit advocates on a ban on torture – violation of respect and integrity
Exceptional cases o
Breaking the ban on torture might be allowed if there is overwhelming evidence of preventing catastrophic events Balancing Consequentialism with Norms
Petit’s perspective underscores the balance between consequentialism and virtues, allowing for flexibility in decision-making while upholding enduring values
Petit acknowledges situations where departure from established norms may be justifiable for the greater good, showing a nuanced understanding of consequentialism AUDIO: RELATIVISM BY PAUL BOGHOSSIAN
Statement: “its wrong to torture children” is generally uncontroversial o
Basis on shared moral intuition
Critique: influence of post-modernism has led to the assertion that morality is relative o
Withhold criticism of those who don’t share our values
o
This assertion challenges traditional moral absolutism
Moral Relativism
Definition: middle ground between moral absolutism and moral nihilism o
Striving to find a position amidst extremes in moral philosophy
Analogy to Physics o
Rejecting absolute motion doesn’t eliminate all motion talk; a relative notion of motion takes to explain the role of absolute motion o
Physics as a model to understand the relativization of concepts
Critic
o
Post-modernist stance: morality is relative; criticism of those with differing values is unwarranted
Hesitant to label certain actions as objectively wrong o
Paul Boghossian from New York University argues against moral relativism
It sees relativist as fundamentally confused
Challenges o
Morals are seen relative to culture post-theism
Dilemma: without religious foundations, moral relativism appears as a coherent alternative o
Is moral relativism a coherent position for those distancing morality from religion?
Critical inquiry: evaluating the logical coherence of adopting moral relativism
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Skepticism and Cultural Diversity
Skepticism: Diversity alone isn’t a strong foundation for moral relativism o
Argument: Diversity doesn’t mean the relativization of moral judgement
Disagreement not seen as mistakes and disputes considered rationally irresolute o
Examining the nature of disagreement and their implication Etiquette
Example: eating beef as culturally relative but not inherently moral relativism o
Analyzing cultural practices to distinguish between relativism and cultural diversity
Etiquette is based on the existent universal norms allowing cultural variations o
Framework: applying the etiquette model to understand relativization in cultural contexts
Cultural variations o
Etiquette norms differ globally, illustrating cultural variations
Examining how cultural norms influences behaviour and judgements o
Example: noisy eating as culturally acceptable in some societies (e.g Asia)
It shows that you’re relishing the food and complimenting
moral pressure
Contrasting cultural norms highly differences in etiquette Ethical Considerations and Normative Judgements
Some may defy universal norms based on ethical considerations
Example: English Football fans refuse to adhere to universal norms of respecting other countries Relativity to Circumstances
Moral judgement can be relative to circumstances o
What the “right” thing to do depends on the circumstances ≠ relativism o
Acknowledging the complexity of moral judgement in specific situation
o
Any absolute will concede or embrace it readily because its part of weighing up of the considerations
Relative to circumstances doesn’t necessarily imply moral relativism
Distinguishing between situational ethics and moral relativism Relativism vs Absolutism
Criteria distinguishing between absolutists and relativism based on moral judgement o
Relativism: Moral judgement depends on the agent’s or community’s moral code o
Absolutism: Asserts a single true moral code, with qualifications on specific moral judgements Descriptive vs Normative Relativity
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Nature of Judgement o
Descriptive: Statements become descriptive remarks about the relation between a moral
code and a judgement o
Normative : Involves retaining normative vocabulary, but often without inherent moral or normative content Importance of Absolutist Moral Judgements 1.
Objective moral grounding a.
Absolute argue for existence of single moral code to provide moral principle objectives b.
Absolute seek a universal moral framework rather than relativists who look for moral judgements to a single/cultural codes 2.
Normative content a.
Provides clear and unambiguous guidance of wrong/right b.
Relativists risk bleaching moral judgements when they become descriptive and relative to a particular moral code
3.
Addressing extreme cases a.
Deal with extreme moral issues, such as pedophilia or genocide b.
Robust moral stance that transcends individual preferences, ensuring a more categorical condemnation or approval of actions, irrespective of cultural or personal beliefs 4.
Cultural critique a.
Enables critique of other cultures without falling into the trap of cultural relativism
b.
Provides a framework and allow judgement to extend beyond cultural boundaries without committing reasoning error
5.
Moral clarity a.
Asserts that there are certain actions that are universally and objectively right or wrong, offering a more decisive moral standpoint 6.
Epistemological challenges a.
Boghossian emphasizes the epistemological challenges in determining the correct moral facts b.
Does not imply a presumption of knowing the correct moral facts but underscores the necessity to think deeply about normative c.
Discussion does not imply a presumption of knowing the correct moral facts but underscores the necessity to think deeply about normative vocabulary Motivation and Cultural Judgement
Epistemic inquiry o
Relative motivation: driven by the belief that moral truths depend on an agent’s or community’s moral code o
Cultural judgement: acknowledges the complexity of determining moral truths and refrains from imposing them on diverse perspectives
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