CRITICAL THINKING lesson 2

CRITICAL THINKING Lesson 2 - What is Critical Thinking? INTRODUCTION Core Critical Thinking Skills This lesson provides an explanation of the cognitive skills, concepts, and meta-cognitive processes that are fundamental to critical thinking. Content in this lesson is delivered via video lecture and multi-media presentations that will lead students to an understanding of why critical thinking is important to military leaders and post- graduate students alike. It also answers the question "What is critical thinking?" and describes common obstacles to clear critical thinking. WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING? "The recipe for perpetual ignorance is: Be satisfied with your opinions and content with your knowledge." - Elbert Hubbard, Businessman and writer Author of the essay, "A Message to Garcia" (1899) As Elbert Hubbard (1856-1915) so aptly observed, the journey from ignorance to wisdom demands not only curiosity, but the ability to change one's mind. As human beings, we are blessed with an array of higher order cognitive processes. However, the ability to harness those processes to entertain and understand new ways of looking at our world is not encoded in our DNA. It is, in fact, a learned set of conscious higher-order thinking skills that assist in decision-making, problem-solving, cross-cultural communication, and academic study. We call this cognitive skill set "Critical Thinking." Opening a discussion of critical thinking by merely defining it invites memorization and invokes only the lower order thinking skills. A better way to begin would be to analyze the basic components of the process and by doing so arrive at a clearer understanding of how it works. Peter Facione, a leading figure in the study of critical thinking, has identified six critical thinking skills: Analysis, Interpretation, Inference, Evaluation, Explanation, and Self-Regulation . This lesson's video presentation is based on Facione's article and introduces these six critical thinking skills. REQUIRED MATERIAL Miller, Critical Thinking: An Introduction (2012) Narrated by Charles Caton (2017) TO LEARN MORE Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts (2010) THE OODA LOOP AND THE CORE CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS This section provides a review of the core thinking skills presented in the video by aligning them with the "OODA Loop" (Osinga, Science, Strategy, and War: The Strategic Theory of John Boyd, 2007). The purpose here is not to become immersed in a lengthy study of the "Loop," but rather to use it as an analytical tool for clearer comprehension of the core thinking skills. Seeing how the skill set fits into the Loop will also lead to a better understanding of the OODA protocol itself and how it can be used as a platform for thinking critically in both academic and real-world settings. The OODA Loop: Observe, Orient, Decide, and Act The OODA Loop As most officers in the Department of the Air Force and other services know, the late Col John R. Boyd, USAF, developed what he called a "time competitive decision cycle" known as the OODA Loop. Boyd described this decision-making protocol as a continuous process made up of four sets of actions: OBSERVE, ORIENT, DECIDE, and ACT (Osinga, Science, Strategy, and War: The Strategic Theory of John Boyd, 2007, p1). Boyd's OODA Loop was originally conceived as a way for fighter pilots to think and respond to tactical situations more quickly than the enemy. Over the years, however, the OODA Loop has also been applied to both operational and strategic planning as well. Boyd's protocol was eventually adopted by the sister services and the business community because it is considered a reliable process for leaders who must function effectively in complex and fast-changing environments. Lining Up the OODA Loop and the Critical Thinking Skill Set In his lecture in Lesson 1, Dr. Stafford mentioned the OODA Loop and introduced it along with a graphic that showed how it lines up with other meta-cognitive frameworks. Stafford's chart appears below, but with an additional column representing the six critical thinking skills. Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Models The Importance of Self-Regulation and the OODA Loop While five of the six critical thinking skills fit neatly into each of the four quadrants of the OODA Loop, "Self-Regulation" is a key component for every stage of the protocol. As the video animation stated, self-regulation is a meta-cognitive and meta-evaluation skill that raises awareness of biases, prejudice, stereotypes, "blind spots," and other obstacles to effective critical thinking. Self-regulation, when working in tandem with each of the other critical thinking skills, increases our ability to do each more effectively. One other point to keep in mind is that the OODA Loop, as its name implies, is not a linear process: It is a loop. One does not always finish with one area and then move onto the next, never to return. For example, it may be necessary to loop back to the "Observe" or "Orient" stage as new data or insights emerge. As Ullman observed, working within the "Orient" stage, for example, has an impact on what is observed and how the actions are implemented. Each decision and action change the context for the observations, and the result of the action on the environment causes a pushback from it that affects the information being observed (Ullman, "'OO-OO-OO!' The Sound of a Broken OODA Loop" in CrossTalk: The Journal of Defense Software Engineering, 2007). In other words, a micro-level OODA Loop is employed at each stage of the larger, macro-level decision-making process. See the following diagram for a graphic depiction of how the process operates: The Real OODA Loop The next section gives a brief review of each critical-thinking skill and how it can be integrated into the OODA Loop. OBSERVE STAGE: OBSERVATION, INTERPRETATION, PERCEPTION, AND SELF-REGULATION The Red Wheelbarrow In a brief poem written in 1923, William Carlos Williams laid the ground rules for the Imagist Movement in American poetry. Williams, a New Jersey physician, pointed out the importance of the physical world to human existence. A deeper implication of the poem is that our perception of the environment shapes our relationship to it. And, what we see is influenced by perceptual filters that are at least partially shaped by culture. Observation, Interpretation, and Self-Regulation Examine the poem, photograph, and drawing in "The Red Wheelbarrow" illustration. All three are interpretations of the same real-world environment and each perceives the scene in slightly different ways. The creator of the drawing swathes the picture in shades of amber, depicting the wheelbarrow as large and the chickens, small, while the photographer's lens depicts large chickens feeding on a swath of grass next to a small wheelbarrow. The poet, on the other hand, pays no attention to size, but notices something the photo and drawing leave out - a glaze of rainwater on the barrow. When engaged in the process of critical thinking it is important to recognize when we are unconsciously interpreting what we see. This is when the ability to observe becomes critical. Observations are snapshots of what we see, hear, feel, taste, or smell without evaluating or assigning meaning to it. Interpretations, on the other hand, are observations that have been cognitively processed. To observe without interpretation is, of course, impossible. However, by making an effort to rely only on what is observed, we are actually applying the critical thinking skill of self-regulation. As human beings, we observe and then interpret the world based on our own past experiences and perspectives. When we encounter something new or unknown, we automatically compare the information we take in through our five senses with what we know and have experienced in the past. Self-regulation helps us to "bracket out" assumptions, pre-conceived notions, and prejudices. A good example of how our ability to observe and make objective judgments can be strongly affected by unconscious assumptions. Author Malcolm Gladwell provides an interesting example of how unconscious stereotypes had an impact on symphony orchestras in the U.S. An excerpt from Gladwell's book Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking (2007) explains how orchestra maestros dealt with this problem and is included in the "Assumptions and Stereotypes" section later in this lesson. Decisions about what data to focus on and what to leave out is part of the observation and interpretation process and those decisions can have a far-reaching - and sometimes unintended - impact later on. That is why self-regulation is so important to the Observe Stage of the OODA Loop. This is particularly true when planning for operations that have a cross-cultural component. By applying self-regulation to the process of interpretation we are reminded to observe first and recognize our interpretations as perspectives, not assumptions - those deeply held "common sense" beliefs that "everyone knows," or "the truth" about a place or people. For an example of how assumptions can influence perception, look at the following "Pyramids" presentation of three common sayings and read them quickly. Pyramids Now read each again more slowly. If you are like most people, you missed the extra "a" or "the" added to the sayings. While this is a rather simplistic example, it does point out how our assumptions can influence our ability to interpret what we see. Observe Stage: Defining Interpretation As the adaptation of Dr. Stafford's Comparison Chart othe previous page illustrates, the critical thinking skill of "Interpretation" fits neatly into the "Observation" stage of the OODA Loop. In everyday parlance, "Interpretation" has approximately the same meaning as two other critical thinking skills, "Analysis" and "Explanation." However, as it was described in the animated video on critical thinking, interpretation differs significantly from both these skills (Facione, Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts , 2010). All three have very different purposes. The primary goal of interpretation is to lay the groundwork for the orientation stage by constructing an unbiased picture of a problem or situation before conducting a detailed analysis. When the problem or situation is large and complex, leaders must be able to sort through data and locate those factors that are most important. Beginning a research project or planning an operation may present so much information that "tentative categorization or… clarifying what a sign, chart or graph means" may be required (Facione, 2010). In academic study, this might also mean locating the thesis statement and main ideas of a scholarly article. Another use of interpretation is paraphrasing - restating something someone has written or said - or summarizing in a few sentences the meaning of an entire passage or article. Applying this interpretive process to a cross-cultural negotiation, for example, might begin with the gathering of cultural information and then constructing a concise description of the situation, one that is non-judgmental and - to the extent possible - devoid of cultural bias. Here is where "Self-Regulation" comes in. Meta- evaluative sub-skills of self-examination and self-correction will help to ensure that cultural biases and assumptions are not clouding the picture we are trying to create. Ducks in a Row The primary purpose of interpretation is to observe carefully and get one's "ducks in a row" before moving on to the "Orient" stage of the OODA Loop. In addition to "Self-Regulation," "Interpretation" also requires "Inference" and "Evaluation" skills: Inference : to tease out the possible implications of the data at hand and identify their relevance - or irrelevance - to the project Evaluation : to assess whether or not the data is relevant to the project All of these critical thinking skills play a role in the process of interpretation. They gain even greater prominence when the problem or project has a cross-cultural dimension. A SHORT EXERCISE: OBSERVATION AND INTERPRETATION Leading with Cultural Intelligence In his book Leading with Cultural Intelligence , David Livermore presents a short two part exercise to show how observation leads to interpretation, and how interpretation is heavily influenced by our own cultural filters (Livermore, Leading with Cultural Intelligence: The New Secret to Success , 2010). Take out a sheet of paper and fold it lengthwise into two columns. Label the left-hand column "Observe" and the right-hand column "Interpret." Look at the "Part 1: Observe" paragraph below and follow the instructions. In the "Observe" column on your paper, quickly write down your observations. On the right side of the paper under "Interpret," record your interpretations based on the information provided in the "Part 2: Interpret" instructions: PART 1: OBSERVE In the left column, record only what you can actually see in the picture. Don't suggest what it means; just write down objective observations. How many people are in the picture? How are they dressed? What objects do you see? What décor is evident? What kind of expressions are on their faces? Resist explaining what they're doing and why. Only write down what anyone could see by looking at this picture. Don't rush through this part of the exercise...[S]low down long enough to accurately observe what [you] see (Livermore, Leading with Cultural Intelligence: The New Secret to Success , 2010). PART 2: INTERPRET For the right column, begin to think about the "why" questions that accompany what you observed. Where do you think these people are? What do you think they're doing? Are you sure? How do you think these individuals are connected to each other? What kind of mood do you think exists? Why is there one mug on the table? Why is the room decorated like this? You'll probably feel like you're guessing at some of this. You are. Write down your best guesses and interpretations as to why you think you observe what you do. If you were in this room, which individuals would you be naturally drawn to? Write down your interpretations (Livermore, Leading with Cultural Intelligence: The New Secret to Success , 2010). Observing and Interpreting Notice how both observation and interpretation are enacted through questioning. However, observing typically answers "What?" questions, while interpreting answers the "Where?", "When?", "How?", "Who?" and especially "Why?". Of course, any attempt to accurately transfer what we experience through our senses into words is essentially an interpretation. Yet the deeper kind of interpretation relies on more than our five senses. As the questions above illustrate, we interpret by using our knowledge and experience to make informed guesses about what we have read or what we see is happening in a given situation. We call these informed or educated guesses "inferences." When we enter a new context - whether social, academic, or military - where we have limited experience, our ability to interpret becomes less reliable. This is particularly true when the context is located in a culture that differs from our own. The "Observing and Interpreting" image illustrates how Livermore deals with the difficulties of observation and interpretation in cross-cultural business contexts. Observation and interpretation go hand in hand. Without observation, according to Boyd, we cannot "identify change, or lack of change, in the world around [us]" as it unfolds (Boyd, cited in Osinga, Science, Strategy, and War: The Strategic Theory of John Boyd , 2007). Interpretation of that change acts as a bridge to the "Orient" stage of the OODA Loop. Analysis of the data will engender deeper understanding, then loop back and reshape our observations as new knowledge and experience hones our ability to interpret. INTRODUCTION TO THE ORIENT STAGE The "Orient" stage of the OODA Loop is essentially a sense-making exercise. According to Boyd, developing an intimate orientation to the task, problem, or text under analysis is the central focus of the OODA protocol. Orient Stage: Analysis and Self-Regulation Analysis of the "snapshot" produced during the Observation stage helps the critical thinker to form a clear picture of what must be done in the next stage. This analysis might require breaking down a concept into its component parts or enumerating the specific tasks and the inputs necessary for the launch of a successful operation. If the operation is to be implemented across both national and cultural boundaries, research into key cultural domains and dimensions, such as "Family and Kinship," "Time and Space," and "High and Low Context" will be the first step, followed by identification of potential problem areas. REQUIRED MATERIAL Testimonial: Applying Critical Thinking (2007) Orient Stage: Evaluation and Self-Regulation When evaluating an article, a speaker, or an adversary's actions, one must tease out the strengths and weaknesses of what is heard. One way to assess the veracity or strength of an argument is to look to the author's (or speaker's) premises and note if the reasoning leads to the conclusion he or she provides. In the intelligence field, Moore explains that evaluation - what the intelligence community calls "evidentiary assessment" - requires that "the analyst repeatedly [pose] the question 'why': "Why do I believe this information is relevant to the question at hand (either against or for) and therefore exists as evidence?" "Why do I believe the source to be credible?" (Moore, Critical Thinking & Intelligence Analysis , 2007). Evaluating Saddam As with analysis and inference, evaluation is also Self-Regulation. Moore goes on to explain the self-regulatory function of evaluation when he stated that other "questions about the analyst's own thinking processes might arise, such as: "What are my biases and why do they lead me to think this way?" (Moore, Critical Thinking & Intelligence Analysis , 2007). When evaluating statements that cross-cultural boundaries, a good analyst in the Saddam situation should also consider the differences in the way the two cultures deal with conflict. One might ask questions such as: (1) "Is bellicosity the norm?" (2) "Are 'denial and deception' viewed in the same way as they are here?" (3) "Has Hussein adhered to cultural norms in other situations?" (4) "Is our perception of 'gain' culturally bound and therefore different from what an Iraqi might perceive? Orient Stage: Inference and Self-Regulation The process of drawing inferences should be done in tandem with both analysis and evaluation. An inference is an educated guess. Inferences allow us to "read between the lines" of an article to determine what an author is implying. In a cross-cultural negotiation, we try to infer what our fellow negotiators on the other side of the table are thinking by teasing out the meaning of their verbal and nonverbal responses as well as their overall behavior and procedures. Drawing Inferences As Moore points out, self-regulation checks the quality of our inferences by asking questions. He goes on to state that: "Questioning is either personal or impersonal and ranges from the musings of the individual critical thinker to that of a global discourse. As an individual ponders problems and issues, she (sic) abduces the most likely explanations. Moving up a level, questioning becomes a hierarchical dialogue within dyads or larger assemblies. A critically thinking questioner ferrets out answers from others within the group. The process generates new questions that are answered in turn - and in turn, raise further questions. At the level of a community debate, critical thinkers explore what is possible politically and within the community's purview. Ideally, the relationship between thinkers is peer-to-peer. Finally, questions addressed within the context of a global discourse…" - Moore, Occasional Paper No. 14: Critical Thinking and Intelligence Analysis (2007) p17-18 Regardless of whether the discussion is personal or impersonal, all questioning eventually returns to the individual. Questioning through individual reflection, also called reflective questioning, not only helps us draw inferences, it also keeps us on track. Most of us have had the rueful experience of reading a book or an article and after a page or two realized that we had no recollection of what we had just read. Individual reflection that engages the book or article through questioning helps to ensure that we do not slip into a mindless state. (The importance of questioning in reading will be discussed in detail in Lesson 4.) Questioning, when properly applied, wrote Moore, can "facilitate a leap to new questions, ideas, and possibilities" (Moore, Critical Thinking and Intelligence Analysis , 2007). How important is the act of asking questions to the process of critical thinking? Educational psychologist, Dr. Ellen Langer ends her book on mindful learning by discussing this very topic - the important role of questioning when drawing inferences: How can we know if we do not ask? … All answers come out of the question. If we pay attention to our questions, we increase the power of mindful learning. - Langer, The Power of Mindful Learning (1997) p139 Making Inferences In the "Making Inferences" illustration, Major Jane Smith is negotiating a contract with Mr. Kanbar, a local businessman in a non-Western country. Smith engages in a process of reflective questioning to help her understand what is going on. In cultures where indirect communication is the norm, asking someone directly may not help. In this case, Kanbar is insisting that his 22-year old daughter be present at the meeting. Smith is hesitant, but through reflective questioning considers several cultural reasons why he has made this request and then accepts. Can you think of any other reasons why Kanbar has made this request? DECIDE STAGE: EXPLANATION AND SELF-REGULATION The "Decide Stage" of the OODA Loop is characterized by vigorous mental activity as it brings to bear all of the critical thinking skills. Creation of an explanation (sometimes referred to as the "Descriptive Principle" (McConnell, "How We Think: Thinking Critically and Creatively and How Military Professionals Can Do It Better," 2011) draws on the problem-solver's creativity and critical thinking skills as a cogent argument is built or a plan of action constructed. Most importantly, however, the essential purpose of this stage is for critical thinkers to convince themselves by "express[ing] new and valid ideas and…counter[ing] old and potentially fallacious" ones (McConnell, "How We Think: Thinking Critically and Creatively and How Military Professionals Can Do It Better," 2011). Creating an explanation is a heuristic process that allows us to see the problem, plan of action, or issue in a new way. What made sense before, may be clearly incorrect once the full picture begins to take shape, thus the skill of self-regulation becomes particularly useful as assumptions and procedures are justified or found wanting and may require a return to the observation and orientation stages to re-examine data. Keep in mind also that in describing the "Decide" stage as a decision-making step, Boyd also called it a "hypothesis," a stage for formulating hypotheses to be tested in the stage to follow. One of the ways to make sense of the data collected is to create a chart that can graphically depict your findings. While the chart must make sense to you, that does not mean it will be comprehensible to others. Therefore, when constructing a findings chart have others take a look at it and see if they can understand it. Below is a chart created by David Moore to better understand the powerful dynamics at work during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The chart, writes Moore, is a "speculative - and admittedly simplified - critical comparison…[that] illustrates how critical thinking… reveals much about who stood to gain and who stood to lose in the crisis" (Moore, Critical Thinking and Intelligence Analysis , 2007). Comparative Chart of Leadership Point of View During the Cuban Missile Crisis A Comparative Assessment of Rival Motivations ACT STAGE: IMPLEMENT PLAN AND SELF-REGULATION The OODA Loop: Act The "Act" Stage requires implementation of the plan. However, this is not the end of the process. Field Marshall Helmot von Moltke (the elder), Prussia's Chief of General Staff, is said to have first uttered the oft-repeated military bon mot, "No battle plan survives first contact with the enemy" (Luft, Beer, Bacon and Bullets: Culture in Coalition Warfare from Gallipoli to Iraq , 2009, p6). As mentioned before, Boyd himself stipulated that the OODA Loop is a continuous looping process rather than a static linear model. In his detailed model of the loop, the "Act" or "Action" stage is also designated as a "test" phase that flips back to observation as events unfold. When the OODA protocol is employed to its fullest capability, leaders will frequently move backward and forward through the loop as feedback is returned and sense is made of the new data as it is processed. OBSTACLES TO CRITICAL THINKING Critical Thinking in the Military As Facione has explained, the six cognitive skills of analysis, interpretation, inference, evaluation, explanation, and self-regulation are at the very heart of critical thinking. Yet critical thinking is far too complex a process to be understood through the application of these six skills alone. While the critical thinking skill set opens the door to clear and well-reasoned decision-making, thinking critically is a mental activity that does not occur in a sterile environment. It is enacted within both a cognitive and social context. As a result, many of our deepest thoughts, feelings, and social obligations can conspire to undermine our critical thinking ability. In his book, The Power of Critical Thinking: Effective Reasoning about Ordinary and Extraordinary Claims , Lewis Vaughn has identified some of the primary impediments to clear critical thinking. While our own self-interest often keeps us from thinking critically, social pressures also exert a profound and often hidden influence on the way we think. The impact of social or cultural pressures sometimes emerges under the guise of prejudice, bias, racism, ethnocentrism, and stereotyping. In their oft-quoted 2004 article, Fastabend and Simpson describe how "group think" gets in the way of critical thinking (Fastabend and Simpson, "The Imperative for a Culture of Innovation in the U.S. Army: Adapt or Die" 2004, p9). They go on to exhort military leaders to "create an environment where critical thinking is the norm and reasoned debate replaces unspoken dissent." Vaughn goes on to describe how group pressure can exert a powerful influence on critical reasoning in some topical areas. Paradoxically, these same group pressures may have little or no impact on our thinking in other areas. PREJUDICE, BIAS, AND RACISM In The Power of Critical Thinking (2010), Lewis Vaughn writes: Rally at State Capitol Group pressure often leads to prejudice, bias, and racism. (To a lesser extent, so does self-interest.) But what do these terms mean? Prejudice in its broadest sense is a judgment or opinion - whether positive or negative - based on insufficient reasons. But usually, the term is used in a narrower way to mean a negative, or adverse, belief (most often about people) without sufficient reasons. At the heart of prejudice, then, is a failure of critical thinking. And the use of critical thinking is an important part of eradicating prejudiced views. Bias is another word for prejudice, both in the general and the narrow sense. Sometimes the word is also used to mean an inclination of temperament or outlook - as in "My bias is in favor of tougher laws." Racism is a lack of respect for the value and rights of people of different races or geographical origins. Often this attitude is based on prejudice - specifically an unjustified belief that one group of people is somehow superior to another. [ Ethnocentrism is] the pressure that comes from presuming that our own group is the best, the right one, the chosen one, and all other groups are, well, not as good.… The assumption that your group is better than others is at the heart of prejudice. This we-are-better pressure is probably the most powerful of all. We all have certain beliefs not because we have thought critically about them but because our parents raised us to believe them or because the conceptual push and pull of our social group has instilled them in us. That is, we may believe what we believe - and assume that our beliefs are better than anyone else's - because we were born into a family or society that maintains such views. Group thinking can also easily generate narrow-mindedness, resistance to change, and stereotyping. A stereotype [is] an unwarranted conclusion… about an entire group of people. To stereotype someone is to judge [him or] her not as an individual, but as part of a group whose members are thought to be alike… Stereotypes abound about men and women and probably every known ethnic group. THE IMPACT OF ETHNOCENTRISM ON CRITICAL THINKING To better understand the range of ethnocentrism and its impact on human behavior, critical thinking, and cross-cultural relations, examine the continuum below, adapted from a chart developed by Dr. James Neuliep in his book Intercultural Communication: A Contextual Approach (2009): Ethnocentrism Continuum ASSUMPTIONS AND STEREOTYPES Core Critical Thinking Skills Analysis Interpretation Self Regulation Inference Explanation Evaluation