AVA10013 - Lecture Note

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Swinburne University of Technology *

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10013

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Mechanical Engineering

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Oct 30, 2023

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Week1: INTRODUCTION - Operation of the airline, such as operating of the aircraft. - Make sure the airport meets the requirement of the aircraft, or other way. - The aircraft makes sure to carry the exact weight, speed. Give data on take-off and landing - Unit: Manger of flight opt department, and blend between engineering and flight operation. Intrin sic property is a property that is internal in the sense that whether an . object has it depends entirely upon what the object is like in itself. (Properties of air) P = density*R*T (The Bodmas rule follows the order of the BODMAS acronym ie B – Brackets, O – Order of powers or roots, D – Division, M – Multiplication A – Addition, and S – Subtraction. The BODMAS rule states that mathematical expressions with multiple operators need to be solved from left to right in the order of BODMAS) - Density: you can feel when u are at the sealevel, has been impacted on flight opt - Temperature: when you go higher, the temp decreases (Kelvin, - The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere - The stratosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere . It is the second layer of the atmosphere as you go upward.
- Isothermal Region = The atmosphere remains constantly - 55,000-60,000 they don’t operate in these altitude (jet) - Mostly commercial airlines operate under 36,150’: Piston engine ( ALT 10,000 ) is the limit for piston aircraft, passengers feel uncomfortable, pilot performance. Super dangered (ALT 25,000) for priston AC, pressorized Turbine props (ALT >25,000) Jet & Turbine jet engine ( ALT> 30000) Piston engines are much more efficient at their typical power outputs and are less expensive both to purchase and operate . Turboprops are generally considered more reliable, offer higher efficiencies for their higher power outputs, and can yield much improved performance at high altitudes.
Lift produces by the wing of the aircraft Thrust from propeller of engine Weight = central gravity Lift curve maximum lead to the stall (stall point), less lift -> fall off the sky Lift = Lift coefficient (Cl)* half density* (Square velocity)* wing area * half density* (Square velocity)* = dynamic pressure, Drag = Drag Coefficient* half density * (Square velocity)*wing area Drag curve controls aircraft performance, optimize in curse, burning less fuel, produce full push and pull Drag causes by the friction of Aeroplan (parasite drag) Drag cause by lift ( induced drag) AofA 15*-17*, stall AofA 1. Propeller 2. Piston engines ( four stroke engines)
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The engine is different, the performance is quite the same, talk about power, measure the engine which consumes (Turboprop vs Piston Engine)
Piston engines - Piston prop Turbin Engines - Turbo props - Jets WEEK 2 : AIRCRAFT WEIGHT LIMITATION 1. Centre of Gravity: point where the mass concentrates, control the stability of the aircraft, - Where the aircraft effectively acts , stay within a certain limits to ensure the aircraft maneuverability ( capable of being steered or directed) and stability, also the aircraft structure integrity. ( damage-tolerant design) %MAC = the centre of gravity = x/MAC x100% (~ 15% - 35%, where centre of gravity will sit)
MTOW = the weight of the aircraft in the centre of gravity, From MTOW to MLW = centre of gravity movements 2. Aircraft Weigh Components - Standard Equipment + Empty weight ( incl. unusable fuel in the fuel tank): seat, cabin equipment) + Dry operating empty weight (working equipment on board – food trolley, the crews - pilot and flight attendants) - Payload (Pax + Cargo) + Zero Fuel Weight (max is the limited weight, related to the capacity to the whole load, fuel level to the wings) - Reserve Fuel : a fix reserve (5% or 30mins holding fuel) - Flight Fuel: ( take-off weight) use to operate the flight - Taxi fuel: ( taxi + start up fuel) Ramp Weight > TOW Load data sheet Index unit = moment/100,000 Structual and performance limited, the min
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ZFW : The dry operating weight + payload (excl. usable fuel) Bending moments at the wing root are max when the quantity of fuel in the wing tanks is a mini The actual zero fuel weight must never exceed the MZFW 3. Load Control: - CAO 100.7 ensure compliance with the Weight versus CG’ and other loading limitation- -> Load control must be developed - The Aircraft basic weight & CG - Maintaining and using approved loading systems ( 3 years, weight the aircraft - Load data sheet is a crucial paper sheet that is on the cockpit, available to the pilot
EFB : for pilot, jet operator DCS: for load controller, control the CG Manual: is a paper system
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WEEK 3: AIRSPEED AND ALTITUDE LIMITATIONS 1. Load Factor (G-Loading) Load factor is the ration of lift on weight. When L= W -> n=1, L>W -> n>1 Load factor is The lift being provided by the lifting surfaces (and the aircraft's attitude) is just sufficient to keep the aircraft from descending. Light A/c : - Transport: 2.5 - Normal: 3.8 - Ultimate: 4.4 - Aerobat: 6 The bank angle is never up to 90*, where the aircraft does not sustain. N=1.3 , is the buffet boundaries ( The speed boundaries within which airflow separates from the wing and the buffet is experienced), cruise at a very high altitude, protect aircraft from low load factor from high altitude. Airspeed & Altitude relates to each other. Structural limits are related to aerodynamic forces. Forces related to lift & drag. The maneuvering speed of an aircraft is an airspeed limitation selected by the designer of the aircraft
Coffin corner is the region of flight where a fast but subsonic fixed-wing aircraft's stall speed is near the critical Mach number, at a given gross weight and G-force loading Buffet boundaries and coffin corner limit altitude and speed range. The max of load factor that aircraft can sustain that 30*=n 1.3 Altitude limits: - Engine limitations: outside air temperatures affect thrust of the a/c. - Thrust limitation: control max speed. - Pressurisation limits and cabin pressure differential: ppl cannot breath at 35,000 ft (normal in 8,000-5,000) WEEK 4: AIRPORTS AND RUNWAY 1. Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning - The document provides data is relevant to handle aircraft on the ground by aircraft manufacturers in a standardised format. a. Pavement Limits : If aircraft operates at weights and tire pressure which are excessive for the strength characteristics of runway, various forms of runway deterioration can occur. - If the aircraft is too heavy, it’ll put the pressure on the wheel. - System is required to ensure the weight which an aircraft is operating is consistent with the strength of runway. (ACN/PCN Reporting System) When the aircraft rips off the runway is the combination of the wheel loading and the jet blast - ACN: Aircraft Classification Number/ PCN: Pavement Classification Number. The aim is PCN must be greater or equal to CAN
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SIDs: Standard Instrument Departure Approaches: terminal arrivals, actual info how aircrafts approach the ap to land, what tracks do aircraft take after approaching the runway STRM using the satellite
Not all airports have stop way, it just stops the aircraft moving forward not destroying the aircraft.
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Aircrafts with code 3 or 4 have to use the specific runway with the mini length of RESA is 90m Clear way is the are that you can fly over but it is not to be run around. A clearway is an area beyond the
paved runway, free of obstructions and under the control of the airport authorities. The length of the clearway may be included in the length of the takeoff distance available. For example, if a paved runway is 2000 m long and there are 400 m of clearway beyond the end of the runway, the takeoff distance available is 2400 m long. The stopway is an area beyond the runway which can be used for deceleration in the event of a rejected takeoff. Noise Fan operation while taking off and landing plays significant contribution to the noise. The certified noise levels are part of the approved aircraft flight manual. Stringent : (of regulations, requirements, or conditions) strict, precise, and exacting.
WEEK 5: AIRWAYS Airspace - Classsified into 5 classes: controlled and uncontrolled airspace - Class G: uncontrolled airport - Class C: regional airport Flight rules: Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) and Visual Flight Rules (VFR) - Instrument conduct on instrument - Visual use our eyes RVSM : Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Navigation - Previously use “Dead Reckoning” - calculate airspeed, windspeed, wind direction to determine the aircraft position and flight time (not accurate, a manual process) - Ground based radio equipment (NDB- nondirectional beacon; VOR- Very high frequency, provide the direction from the point to the station; DME-distance measurement equipment; ILS – instrument landing system) - establish aircraft position. - Satelitte base equipment (RNAV and versions based around GPS
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A) Navaids: - NDB: a radio transmitter, identified by 1,2,3 characters to the morse code VOR: has a fix and rotating signal which creates 360 radials. DME: provides no bearing or radial information, distance from the station, combine with VOR RNAV (Area Navigation) -> provide extra level of accuracy and safety Airspace
Minimum Altitudes - MOCA (Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude): Vertical Terrain Clearance, Lateral Obstacle Clearance (within 5nm of airway centre line) - MORA or Grid MORA Flight Operation and set sustainability of the, set the aircraft. What you need to do operate safely to that aircraft. Look at the capacity of airport and airline (10-20 mins) WEEK 6: Navigation: Determine where we are on the earth surface. Everything is navigated as Longitude & Latitude. The great circle is a flight path (shortest way) during two points. It’s hard to fly along the great circle as the heading will change and we cant keep the constant heading. During the flight, we need to know our heading, trueairspeed -> groundspeed by wind direction & velocity. Finally we get the time interval between destination A & B. Heading is a vector (magnitude is a true airspeed & direction is a heading). Win has direction & windspeed. That result in ground speed & track.
Track, direction, windspeed. True airspeed -> groundspeed & heading to maintain the track. Fuel burn : Start-up fuel Taxi fuel Take of fuel Climb fuel Cruise fuel Descent fuel Approach & Landing fuel Flight Fuel (excl. start-up & taxi fuel) We have reserve fuel: variable (5% of flight fuel or 5 mins of holding at 1500ft in standard condition – if the distance between destinations is short), fixed reserve (30 minutes); - Holding (30 mins or 1 hour mins holding in the sky as you cant get it or land because of bad weather), - Alternate (hold to fly to alternate airport instead of destinated airport); - Tankered fuel (carry extra fuel beside required fuel because fuel is not available at the destination or the fuel price at destination airport) Non Standard Ops: - Emergency descent due to depressurization (when air density is high, pax need air mask and hard to make normal breath until 10000 ft) Aircraft need to make rapid descent to 10000 ft, during the descend we need to make sure there is no obstacle following the MOCA requirement/LSALT. - Drift down due to engine failure: clear the critical obstacles following the LSALT MOCA Other Data in the Flight Plant Points of no return (PNR): point that can not return to the base location (fly over remote area or over water). If you pass this point you have to fly to the next destination. Critical point (CP) – Equitime point: the point that you can return to the base if you are behind the CP when there are emergency situation happens (heart attack pax). If you are over the CP, you have to go fly to the destionation. (Time Return=Time Destination) Extended Diversion Time Operation (EDTO/ ETOPS)
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WEEK 7: TAKE OFF PERFOMANCE For aircraft MTOW > 5700kg In case of one engine failure, there still have to take-off in the safe performance. Distances: - Accelerate stop distance: from the point where the brakes release in the take-off run -> aircraft starts deceleration; engine failure is recognized -> pilot decided to stop. It is the distance require for the aircraft to accelerate from the stationary point to the engine failure point at which the max braking is applied to make the full stop. - Take-off distance: the ground run and the distance from where the aircraft leaves the ground until it reaches 35ft below the runway at a speed = take-off safety speed.
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- Stopway: related to accelerate stop distance, are that aircraft can be stop during the accelerate stop manoeuvre - Clearway: aircraft can fly over Only stopway can support the aircraft to stop. Take off run: - The distance where the mid-point where the aircraft lifts off the ground and reaches 35ft TORA (Takeoff run available): TOR =< TORA - The length of runway is available for the aircraft’s ground run. - Runway length/the distance from the entry -> the end of runway TODA (Take off distance available)
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- TODA = TORA + Clearway (the wheels cannot be operated at the clearway) - TOD =<TODA ASDA (Accelerate Stop Distance Available) - ASDA = TORA + stopway - ASD =< ASDA Line-up Allowance - Depends on how the line up occurs (intersection entry, back track to the line up position), it should be removed from the TODA. The V-speeds: 3 main speeds during take-off: - Decision Speed (V1 ): elect to either stop or continue to takeoff. V1 set engine failure speed - Rotation speed (Vr): rotate into the take-off climb angle. Sometimes, Vr = V1. Standard rate of rotation is 3*/second Vr >= 1.05 Vmca Vr must enable V2 to be reached before the aircraft reaches 35ft (from takeoff surface to the main landing gear) Vr must Vlof to be achieved - Take-off safety speed (V2): the speed that aircraft must reach at the end of take off at 35ft. Set of design speeds: - The Minimum control speed on the ground (Vmcg): speed that we control of the aircraft when one engine inoperative on the ground - The minimum control speed on the air (Vmca): speed that we control of the aircraft when
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one engine inoperative on the air - The min unstick speed (Vmu): the absolute minimum speed at which an aircraft can take off. It is achieved by pitching the aircraft up to the maximum during the take-off roll - The lift off speed (Vlof): the min speed where aircraft actually take off, first becomes airlbone. - The Maximum Brake Energy speed (Vmbe): amount of energy which brakes can absorb when stopping aircraft - The Tyre energy speed (Vte): forced from the cage of the tyre - The stall Speed (Vs): the minimum speed needed for an airplane to produce lift. If an airplane drops below its specified stall speed, it will no longer produce lift. takeoff & landing speed affect the stall speed We must recognise the engine failure before accelerating to V1. When 1s to V1, it is the last chance to engine failure can occur. Take-off flight path (one engine inoperative): - Takeoff flight path extends from 35ft to 1500ft above the takeoff surface - Gross take-off flight path: represent the actual take-off flight, where you expect the aircraft to be if it continues a take-off with one engine inoperative. Take-off path (one engine inoperative): - The take-off path :
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extends from the brakes release point -> the 1500ft point aircraft transition from the take-off to the en-route config is at final take-off safety speed (V2) - The final take-off speed > 1.25 Vs, set the best angle of climb speed - TOGA (Take of go-round thrust): the maximum allowable in-flight power or thrust setting identified in the performance data. 10 mins with one engine inoperative 5 mins with all engine operating Take off climb performance Gross gradient = height/distance*100% Obstacle Clearance : - Meet the climb requirement during take off, clear any obstructions within the take-off area by a min height of 35ft - Take off Area:
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the area which obstacles must be considering during the take-off climb at the end of the take-off distance available and extends along runway centreline a set width and expands at a rate 0.125D where D is the distance from the end of the take-off distance Net flight path: - a flight path takes into account performance degradation
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WEEK 8 CLIMB AND DESCENT PERFORMANCE 1. Climb Performance Number of forces are acting on the aircraft that make them be in equilibrium state: - Lift - Thrust - Weight - Drag - Acceleration force True airspeed is higher, even the acceleration is constant because of density get less when we climb higher -> increase acceleration. a. Rate of Climb: climb angle & velocity vector (true airspeed) Angle of climb depends on difference thrust & drag on weight in radius When acceleration, have more thrusts than drags -> more acceleration & larger climb angle.
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(kinetic energy factor) TAS: True airspeed IAS: indicated airspeed Temperature stays constant Temperature increase b. Climb angle: c. Rate of Climb
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2. DESCENT PERFORMANCE - The negative climb, is a negative climb angle - Weight acting parallel to thrust & drag - Negative acceleration. As we go lower, true airspeed is lower - If we are above troposphere, Drag = 0 When we want to have a minimum angle, we must have a maximum L/D
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3. CONCLUSION
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Engine failure in cruise -> it drifts down Ta=D Depress in cruise -> O2 problem : need to reduce 10.000ft O2 supply limited in 30 mins We have 2 types of 02 on aircraft: chemical oxygen generators & WEEK 11: Aircraft Evaluation 1. Evaluation driven: - Open new air route - Pax traffic (growth/skinkage) - Replacement of an aging fleet, upgrade the fleet - Sepcialised operation requirements (short field operations, VIP transport, emergency services 2. Aircraft type consideration: - Use the existing type in the fleet, but operating them in the new route (don’t have to do the pilot training, but don’t know it it a suitable type for this route) - Customers expectations? (Aircraft comfort, size, blocktimes) - Customer expectation (airport services, terminal buildings, airconditioning, seat capacity - Support services available at the primary base may limit ur chosen aircraft type (maintenance support) 3. Maintenance - Support infrastructure for a particular aircraft type in a place? - If not, how will you support the aircraft operation, how many engineers have to trained, how many equipment have to put in. - Set up maintenance systems – CAMO and AMO 4. Airport capabilities: - Runway width, length and loaf carrying capacity (PCN) - Taxi capabilities - Apron area – size, marking, vehicles and pax access - Regional or remote areas:
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+ wid life problem + accurate weather forecasts and reports + emergency services available + aircraft need to be fitted with stairs? 5. Aircraft Performance - Range (standard fuel reserve and contingencies) - Routing limitation (one engine inoperative) - Meets min block times - Meet noise requirement - Take off, landing weight and pax/cargo load is acceptable - Need special TO procedures to optimise the TOW? - Chek-in flight limitations EDTO, PNR, Lowest Safe Atltitude, Drift down and emergency descent? - Cost benefit analysis: have a team to do + Investigate all options + Identify all costs (fixed, variable, direct operating costs) + depreciation policy gonna be? - Pilot pool: + Will you have enough pilot for the new type + Pilot training? + Employ more pilot, how many ? + Need to set up new manuals, training and checking system ? - Aircraft purchase/lease + after make the deal, there is a list of things need to be considered + Finance decision (by accountant), insurance (eg: doing some special requirement) + Registration, certification process (issue airworthiness) + Aircraft delivery (insurance rules) – ferry flights Form a team to manage a change
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