HIEU 425_The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era

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The Final Crisis of the French Monarchy HIEU 425: The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era

1 The French Monarchy found itself in a tumultuous situation in 1789 when the anger of the citizens of France overflowed as the revolution began. Quickly becoming one of the most violent revolutions in history, most of the population revolted against the ancien regime with demands of equality for all of France. The causes of the French Revolution began years before 1789 and can be found in its military ventures which weakened economy, the inequality of its social structure, its political turmoil, and the Age of Enlightenment. In 1715, King Louis XV became the King of France. During his reign, while already in conflict with the Parliaments, France fought in the Seven Years War (1756-1763). Hamish Scott writes, “ Modernity, whether political, social, economic, cultural, or indeed military, began during its final decades in the Enlightenment and French Revolution. In this perspective, the Seven Years War can all too easily be viewed as the prelude to the modern warfare of 1792– 1815 unleashed upon Europe by Revolutionary France.” 1 The loss of the war and its expenses caused a further rift between the King and the Parliaments because of royal taxes and the belief that the Parliaments should be involved in decision making. In response to the complaints and demands, the king invoked an absolutist doctrine, eventually dissolving the Parliaments, exiling magistrates, and creating new courts. This conflict would continue until he died, and King Louis XVI brought the magistrates back. Even then, they continued to argue against reform. 2 The economy took another hit when King Louis XVI decided to support the American Revolution. The support came from loans which caused the people to be concerned about future taxes or bankruptcy that would come from borrowing so much money. They believed that 1 Scott, Hamish. "The Seven Years War and Europe's Ancien Regime." War in History 18, no. 4 (11, 2011): 419-55 2 “Monarchy Embattled · Explore · LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/monarchy-embattled .

2 bankruptcy would lead to confiscation of property to pay back the money. Their fears gained substance when the Americans did not pay the French back, and in 1787, the French Monarchy announced it was almost bankrupt. 3 To make matters worse, as unemployment, the rising price of bread, and natural disasters killed crops, 4 the king, queen, and the nobles continued to spend money on lavish parties and luxurious goods while the people of France were starving. France divided the population into Three Estates. The First Estate was the Clergy, the Second Estate was the nobles, and the Third Estate was everyone else. This included the middle class and the peasants who made up at least 97 percent of the population. The Monarchy appointed several Finance Ministers, hoping to aid with reform, including Necker who had the support of the Third Estate 5 , but they were continuously blocked by the Clergy and the nobles. Internal disputes played a role in the coming revolution. With the rich determined to keep their wealth and passing the debt on to the poor and middle class. Violence, it seemed would prevail when hungry peasants began to riot and the King brought in troops, which only added to the fear and anger consuming the people. The Monarchy summoned a meeting of the Estates General to discuss bankruptcy and reform. During the meeting, inequality reared its ugly head. The Third Estate wanted everyone to pay taxes, but 3 JAINCHILL, ANDREW and Michael Sonenscher. "Before the Deluge: Public Debt, Inequality, and the Intellectual Origins of the French Revolution." Modern Intellectual History 6, no. 2 (08, 2009): 425-44 4 Knowles, Lilian. “New Light on the Economic Causes of the French Revolution.” The Economic Journal 29, no. 113 (1919): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.2307/2223136 . 5 “Paris and the Politics of Rebellion · Explore · LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/paris-and-the-politics-of- rebe .

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3 since it was decided that each Estate would get one vote, they would always be outvoted. 6 The Third Estate bared the brunt of the effort to repay debts. There were several taxes they paid along with feudal dues, church tithes, rising rent prices, and having to relinquish a part of their products from their farms. 7 After being locked out of one of the meetings, the Third Estate met at an indoor tennis court, called themselves the National Assembly, and vowed to continue meeting until a constitution was created. When the Monarchy fired Necker, it only added to the anger and fear the Third Estate was experiencing and more violence erupted. Author Young, an English writer in Paris, described what he saw writing, “ Everything conspires to render the present period in France critical. The want of bread is terrible: accounts arrive every moment from the provinces of riots and disturbances and calling in the military to preserve the peace of the markets.” 8 Hunger can cause people to do terrible things. When you add the inequality and leaders who refuse to do anything about it but have plenty of food and are spending money on unnecessary things, you have a recipe for a revolution. While all this was happening, the Age of Enlightenment and its writers were becoming increasingly popular. Enlightenment writers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire influenced readers all over the Western world. Their goal was to apply the scientific method to the problems of society. They advocated for reason and liberty, declaring that “Liberty meant 6 “Estates-General,” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION , accessed June 1, 2022, https://revolution.chnm.org/d/1087 . 7 Knowles, Lilian. “New Light on the Economic Causes of the French Revolution.” The Economic Journal 29, no. 113 (1919): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.2307/2223136 . 8 “Arthur Young on Conditions in July 1789 (1789).” 2015. French Revolution. April 27, 2015. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/arthur-young-july-1789/ .

4 freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom from unreasonable government.” 9 Along with the press and other writers, the country was inundated with calls for reform. Pamphlets became a popular form of spreading ideas for equality and reform. The authors of the pamphlets maintained that a new society could be created wherein the Estates and feudalism could be abolished, giving everyone equal significance. 10 Along with the peasants, the Third Estate was made up of lawyers, merchants, and other members of the bourgeoisie who were more than capable of coming together to fight for reform. They formed clubs and met in salons with some who posited radical ideas that included violence, especially the Jacobin Club 11 led by Robespierre. I would argue that Robespierre was a prominent figure who provoked an insurmountable amount of violence. Along with abolishing the Monarchy and feudalism, the Jacobin Club also called for the death of the king. The unwillingness or inability of the Monarchy to rectify the issue of debt and food unfortunately led to more radicalization, hence the fall of the Bastille. Searching for arms and ammunition, the crowd stormed a veterans’ hospital and then the Bastille, which resulted in the commander’s surrender and beheading, but not the weapons they hoped for. 12 From this point on, 9 “The Enlightenment and Human Rights · Explore · LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/enlightenment-and-human- rights. 10 “Social Causes of the Revolution · Explore · LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/social-causes-of-revolution. 11 “Jacobin Club,” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION, accessed June 1, 2022, https://revolution.chnm.org/d/1094 . 12 “Paris and the Politics of Rebellion · Explore · LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/paris-and-the-politics-of- rebe .

5 violence reverberated throughout France. From the countryside to the cities, people revolted. Anger at King Louis XVI and Marie-Antionette, who was labeled Madame deficit, raged as a crowd of thousands of women marched to Versailles and demanded the king leave his palace and go live among his people. 13 Eventually, some progress was made with the abolishment of feudalism and several other decrees 14 , but King Louis, the nobility, and the Clergy continued to resist giving up their privileges. Many were willing to give in to some demands, but they wanted Louis to remain king. The constitution was agreed to at first, giving the king minimal powers, but King Louis proved that he did not agree as he tried to escape with his family, leaving behind his condemnation of the reforms. 15 This marked the end of the Monarchy, and both the king and queen were soon taken to the guillotine. There were many groups who participated in the French Revolution and the creating of reforms, but one thing that seemed to prevail over everything, their thirst for blood. Violence, it seems, became the revolutionary’s method of trying to get what they wanted. They had their list of grievances and demands but seemed to lack the ability to implement them or were more focused on getting rid of those they believed were enemies. They overthrew the Monarchy, created a constitution, a legislative assembly, but there were too many groups 13 “Women and the Revolution · Explore · LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/women-and-the-revolution . 14 “Decree of the National Assembly Abolishing the Feudal System (11 August 1789),” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION , accessed June 1, 2022, https://revolution.chnm.org/d/551 . 15 “The King Flees Paris (20 June 1791),” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION , accessed June 1, 2022, https://revolution.chnm.org/d/312 .

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6 with differing views on how to execute their new decrees and laws. They were paranoid and were quick to send anyone who disagreed to the guillotine. Robespierre’s reign of terror eventually ended with his head on the guillotine. The Third Estate and its supporters set out to bring down the Nobility and the Clergy to create a society where the citizens did not starve or were forced to pay taxes for Monarchy’s wars, but they went full circle and began fight in wars with their neighbors as well. They dismantled every system in place but failed to become the enlightened nation they proclaimed to be. Revolutions are bloody, that is understandable. The American Revolution was violent as well, but what is the point of a revolution that never stops shedding blood? What is the point of being against war because of the debt it incurs if the new regime also goes to war and eventually leads to a new leader, Napoleon, who created a sort of absolutist government as well? The causes of the French Revolution were apparent with its biggest drivers being debt, inequality, and hunger. While I applaud the French people for standing up to a Monarchy that partied while they starved, I have a tough time understanding the amount of violence that happened after they achieved their goal. The new “enlightened” leaders went on murderous rampages of suppression and oppression which made them as bad or worse than the Monarchy.

7 Bibliography “Arthur Young on Conditions in July 1789 (1789).” 2015. French Revolution. April 27, 2015. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/arthur-young-july-1789/ . Censer, Jack R. "Intellectual History and the Causes of the French Revolution." Journal of Social History 52, no. 3 (2019): 545-554. muse.jhu.edu/article/716768 . “Decree of the National Assembly Abolishing the Feudal System (11 August 1789),” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION , https://revolution.chnm.org/d/551 . “Estates-General,” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION , https://revolution.chnm.org/d/1087 . Higonnet, Patrice. "Sociability, Social Structure, and the French Revolution." Social Research 56, no. 1 (Spring, 1989): 99 “Jacobin Club,” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION, https://revolution.chnm.org/d/1094 JAINCHILL, ANDREW and Michael Sonenscher. "Before the Deluge: Public Debt, Inequality, and the Intellectual Origins of the French Revolution." Modern Intellectual History 6, no. 2 (08, 2009): 425-44 Knowles, Lilian. “New Light on the Economic Causes of the French Revolution.” The Economic Journal 29, no. 113 (1919): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.2307/2223136 . “Monarchy Embattled ” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty-- equality--fraternity/monarchy-embattled . “Monarchy Falls,” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality-- fraternity/monarchy-falls . “Paris and the Politics of Rebellion,” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION.” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty-- equality--fraternity/paris-and-the-politics-of-rebe . Scott, Hamish. "The Seven Years War and Europe's Ancien Regime." War in History 18, no. 4 (11, 2011): 419-55 “Social Causes of the Revolution,” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION. ” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org.

8 https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/social-causes-of- revolution . “The Enlightenment and Human Rights , ” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION .” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/enlightenment-and- human-rights . “The King Flees Paris (20 June 1791),” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION , https://revolution.chnm.org/d/312 . “Women and the Revolution , LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING the FRENCH REVOUTION .” n.d. Revolution.chnm.org. https://revolution.chnm.org/exhibits/show/liberty-- equality--fraternity/women-and-the-revolution .

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