HIS 223 7-2 FINAL PROJECT

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1 7-2 Final Project Sara Myers HIS 223 06/18/2023

2 Women have played a significant role in the US military throughout history. The expectations of women serving have significantly changed in a short amount of time. Women were not allowed to participate in combat during the early stages of American wars. Some would pretend to be a soldier, while others were covertlly involved. Previously, women were often regulated to the sidelines as secretaries and nurses. Women in the armed forces eventually gained the opportunity to see active combat. Despite the debate about women serving in combat roles, the level of integration within the millitary increased significantly following the lifting of the ban on women in combat roles in 2015. Women played a vital role in helping the Continental Army win during the struggle for independence. Some of them could take on political positions, and they rallied support for the troops. Others were involved in espionage. Various stories about these women exist, but little is known about their roles. Women who followed their husbands into the army were known as camp followers. They would tend to the domestic chores of the millitary, such as washing clothes, cooking, and providing medical assistance. 1 Even though they weren't usually involved in combat, these women could find themselves in it during a battle. Mary Ludwig Hays made a name for herself during the Battle of Monmouth when she replaced her husband's artilllery piece. One of the camp followers who participated in the fight was Margaret Corbin, who was severely injured during the attack on Fort Washington in 1776. 2 Despite her injuries, she was stilll able to survive and become the first woman in the US to receive a soldier's pension. Sibyl Ludington, often compared to Paul Revere, was only 16 when she rode through the night to warn the local regiment about a British force attacking a town in Connecticut. 3 Some women, however, went to 1 “Women in the American Revolution on the Homefront and on the Battlefield.” American Battlefield Trust, January 26, 2017. 2 “Women in the American Revolution on the Homefront and on the Battlefield.” 3 Kyla Cathey, “9 Women Who Helped Win the American Revolution,” Mental Floss, March 30, 2021, https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/67905/9-women-who-helped-win-american-revolution.

3 great lengths to support the cause by dressing up as men. One example was Deborah Sampson, who fought under the name Robert Shurtlieff. In 1783, her identity was revealed after she contracted a fever. 4 The physician who tended to her then sent her a lettter to General Paterson. She was then given an honorable discharge. She then proceeded to talk about her experiences in the army. In 1805, Congress authorized the grant of a war veteran pension to Margaret Corbin. 5 She and Deborah Samson were the only women who received federal pensions during the American Revolution. Around eighty years later, women's roles in the military changed little during the American Civil War. They were still able to be spies, camp followers, or nurses. The women who wanted to join the fight were required to pretend to be men. 6 Mary Livermore wrote about a female soldier in 1888. “ Someone has stated the number of women soldiers known to the service as little less than four hundred. I cannot vouch for the correctness of this estimate, but I am convinced that a larger number of women disguised themselves and enlisted in the service for one cause or another than was dreamed of. Entrenched in secrecy and regarded as men, they were sometimes revealed as women by accident or casualty. Some startling histories of these military women were current in the gossip of army life .” 7 Women played the role of spies on both sides of the conflict. Confederate spies, such as Belle Boyd, used their charms to obtain Union information during the war. After she was sent to a place in Front Royal, Virginia, to prevent her from spying, she became a courier for Confederate generals. During the 1862 campaign in the Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jackson 4 Ibid 5 Ibid 6 Blanton, DeAnne. “Women Soldiers of the Civil War.” Prologue Magazine 25, no. 1 (1993) 7 Ibid

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4 cited her intelligence as the key to his victories. 8 The Civil War marked the first time that the Confederate and Union armies actively recruited women to be nurses. On September 6, 1862, Harper's Weekly published a drawing showing the culminatiion of women's efforts to become more involved in the medical field. 9 During the Civil War, it was believed that women could not handle the physical demands of working in this field. The former wanted to provide women with something other than separate lodgings in hospitals. 10 This attitude shifted as medical facilities struggled to handle the number of soldiers who needed treatment. In June 1861, various private aid groups and the millitary started recruiting nurses. During the war, Dorothea Dix was one of the prominent individuals who helped recruit nurses. She was appointed as the Union Army's superintendent of nurses in 1861. 11 Working during the conflict allowed women to take on different roles outside their homes, such as serving as spies or soldiers. It took a lot of work to return to domesticity. Introducing women into the workforce allowed the next generation to gain a higher level of education and participate in society. Before the First World War, women who wanted to serve were relegated to serving as nurses or disguised themselves as men to join the millitary. After the war started, many women joined the army. Some served as camp followers, while others entered the Navy and the Marines. During World War I, women served as camp followers and nurses, similar to what they did during previous conflicts. 12 Thousands of women participated in the Navy Nurse Corps and the US Army. They also gave their time to organizations such as the Red Cross and Salvation Army. 8 “Female Soldiers in the Civil War,” American Battlefield Trust, March 6, 2023, https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/female-soldiers-civil-war. 9 Backus, Paige Gibbons. “Female Nurses during the Civil War.” American Battlefield Trust, October 20, 2020. 10 Ibid 11 Ibid 12 “Women in WWI,” National WWI Museum and Memorial, accessed June 18, 2023, https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/women.

5 The women were known as Salvation Army “Lassies”. 13 Women who knew how to drive were asked to serve as truck and ambulance drivers. They transported wounded soldiers to hospitals and provided other services at the battllefront. Camp followers of the Salvation Army were known for providing various services, such as coffee, doughnuts, clothes repairs, and letter writing. They were also recruited to improve the communication between the Allied forces on the Western Front. The Navy started recruiting women fluent in English and French to serve as switchboard operators. They were known as “Hello Girls,” and they were often near the front lines. 14 On March 17, 1917, the Navy became the first millitary branch to allow women into the military as non-nurses. 15 On August 12, 1918, the Marines created the Marine Corps Women's Reserve with a rigorous selection process. 16 Out of a thousand applicants, only three hundred were chosen. Following the 1918 armistice, female Marines were discharged. Women's contributions to the millitary were vital to the war effort as men were already being held back by their jobs in industries and agriculture. 17 Magazine and newspaper publishers also emphasized the importance of women serving in the millitary. There were still images of women in uniform that were attractive even though they were doing in the millitary, and these were depicted in various ways. 18 Non-millitary women who were not serving were expected to boost the morale of their loved ones back home. Over six hundred American women lost their lives during the war. The debt incurred by the country during the war was the responsibility of the people. On September 13 “Women in World War I (U.S. National Park Service),” National Parks Service, April 7, 2022, https://www.nps.gov/articles/women-in-world-war-i.htm. 14 Ibid 15 “Lady Hell Cats Women Marines of World War I.” National Women's History Museum, August 10, 2017 16 Ibid 17 “Women in World War I (U.S. National Park Service),” National Parks Service, April 7, 2022, https://www.nps.gov/articles/women-in-world-war-i.htm. 18 Ibid

6 30, 1918, President Wilson told Congress that the US had made its partners in the fight with the women. 19 However, the courage the women showed during the war led to the establishment of the Nineteenth Amendment. Before the Second World War, many countries did not allow women to serve in the millitary. The Navy and Marines allowed women to enlist, but the Army did not. In May 1941 and January 1942, a bill was introduced in Congress to establish a women's auxiliary army. The statement called for establishing a non-combat organization that would allow women to fill the roles previously assigned to men. 20 On May 14, 1942, the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps was established. 21 Although it allowed women to serve in units attached to the millitary, it did not grant them military status. In July 1942, the Navy launched the Women Accepted for Emergency Service. A year later, the Marine Corps created the Women’s Reserve. In 1943, the WAAC changed its name to the Women's Army Corps after being granted full military status. Although women were still prohibited from serving in combat, regulations allowed them to participate in military positions designated for fixed locations. 22 Some women had to fight against negative portrayals of them in the military. Millitary officials told women to maintain their feminine appearance by wearing makeup. 23 When the war in 1945 ended, the status of women in the armed forces was in doubt. Many people wanted the Women's Army Corps to be disbanded. In 1946, Major General Willard Paul testified before Congress and requested that the organization be included in the post-war Army. He noted that women’s role during the war had inspired his desire to recognize 19 “Women in WWI,” National WWI Museum and Memorial, accessed June 18, 2023, https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/women. 20 Morden, Bettie J. The Women's Army Corps: 1945-1978. Washington, D.C.: United States Army, Center of Military History, 1992. 21 Spring, Kelly. “In the Military during WWII.” National Women's History Museum, 2017. 22 Morden, The Women's Army Corps: 1945-1978 23 Spring, “In the Military During WWII.”

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7 their contributions. Although it provided equal rights to women in the armed forces, General Paul wanted to ensure that men could not take administrative positions previously restricted to combat. On July 2, 1947, General Eisenhower urged Congress to pass the Women's Armed Services Bill. 24 This bill allowed women to continue serving in the millitary. After the bill was passed, Congress combined all related bills into one. In 1948, the amendment added women to the military's permanent roster. 25 The caveat was that they would not be allowed to participate in combat. Among the stipulations in the act was the limitation on having kids while serving. It also banned women from marrying or having children in the millitary, and were restricted from having direct command over males. 26 Before the Korean War started, the head of the Women's Affairs Commission (WAC) testified before a congressional committee to support regulations preventing women with minor children from serving in the military. 27 Senate Bill 1492 was killed in the House Armed Services Committee after Col. Galloway argued that a mother's duty should be focused on her children instead of her country. This was a setback for women hoping to gain equal rights in the millitary. There were over 120,000 women on active millitary duty during the Korean War even though S. 1492 was not passed. A third of the women were healthcare providers. 28 Even though the WAC mobilized thousands of women, they were still not included in the draft. According to Patricia Johnson, who used to be a Navy recruiter during the war, the participation of women in the millitary contributed to the advancement of women in the broader society. 29 She noted that there 24 Morden, The Women's Army Corps: 1945-1978 25 Ibid 26 KESTER, MARISSA. “A Man’s World? Women in the Air Force Have Pushed the Boundaries of Perceived Capabilities and Roles.” Citizen Airman: The Official Magazine of the Air National Guard & Air Force Reserve 70, no. 2 (April 2018): 24–27. 27 “A Mother's Duty to Her Children”: No Women with Dependent Children in the Armed Forces Reserves.” HISTORY MATTERS - The U.S. Survey Course on the Web. 28 “The Role of Women in the Korean War.” Korean War Legacy, September 14, 2021. 29 Ibid

8 were also several female doctors and engineers during that time. Brigadier General Wilma Vaught made history when she became the first woman to serve as a brigadier general in the US Air Force during the Vietnam War. 30 She was part of the Strategic Air Command's Bomb Wing and supported Operation Arc Light in 1966. Brigadier Gen Vaught's success in the Air Force and the increasing number of opportunities for women in the millitary did not change women’s roles in the army during the Korean and Vietnam wars. In an interview, Suzanne Devlin, who served in the Marines during the conflict, said she signed up to be an administrative officer so that men would no longer fight in combat. 31 During the 1991 Gulf War, American women finally saw the mass deployment of troops. Women were legally allowed to perform various non-combat roles, such as administrative and clerical. The deployment of female soldiers was generally successful. 32 Even though combat exclusion laws prevented women from engaging in combat, some were still subjected to it. During the course of the conflict, five female soldiers were killed. A total of 21 were wounded. Two of them were also taken as Prisoners of War. The 1994 decision to rescind the Risk Rule, which prohibited women from serving in combat roles, allowed them to do in various positions except those directly engaged in combat. 33 This allowed women to participate in almost all Navy and Air Force positions, except for submarine and small vessels. The Desert Storm exposed the contradictions in the millitary's policies regarding women. 34 According to 30 The United States of America Vietnam War Commemoration. Women Veterans Share Their Experiences During the Vietnam War . YouTube, 2020. 31 Ibid 32 “During Desert Shield/Desert Storm.” Naval History and Heritage Command, November 30, 2017 33 “Moore, Emma. “Women in Combat: Five-Year Status Update.” Center for a New American Security (en-US), March 31, 2020 34 KESTER, “A Man’s World? Women in the Air Force Have Pushed the Boundaries of Perceived Capabilities and Roles.”.

9 studies conducted during the Gulf War, the army was able to fully integrate women into their units, even though some were still subjected to discrimination. 35 From 2001 to 2014, women were again deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq. They participated in both Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. The mobilizations in support of the invasion of Afghanistan in September 2007 were the first significant mobilizations since the Gulf War. According to the Labor Department, fifty American women died in action, while 383 were injured during Operation Enduring Freedom. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, over a hundred women were killed. 36 These deaths once again highlighted the issue of the role of women in the military. Women were still more prone to experiencing combat than men during the post-9/11 conflicts, which is why two lawsuits were filed in 2012. 37 The lawsuits challenged the restrictions on women's participation in millitary service. In 2013, the US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta announced that the ban on women serving in combat would be lifted. 38 Two years later, the US Secretary of Defense, Ash Carter, officially announced the change. In March 2020, Emma Moore published an article about the five-year update post the lifting of the ban on women in combat. She noted that the number of women in the military has risen. However, there are still concerns about integrating women into combat arms. Even though there were still concerns about the restrictions, women’s role in the millitary has changed significantly. They no longer have to hide their feminine appearance. They can now serve as active soldiers and have the same opportunities as men. Despite the progress made in integrating women into the military, there is still a long way to go before they are fully integrated into it. 35 “During Desert Shield/Desert Storm.” Naval History and Heritage Command, November 30, 2017. 36 “Military Service.” United States Department of Labor 37 “Military Service.” United States Department of Labor 38 “Moore, “Women in Combat: Five-Year Status Update.”

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11 Bibliography Backus, Paige Gibbons. “Female Nurses during the Civil War.” American Battlefield Trust, October 20, 2020. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/female-nurses-during- civilwar . Blanton, DeAnne. “Women Soldiers of the Civil War.” Prologue Magazine 25, no. 1 (1993). https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/spring/women-in-the-civil- war1.html. Cathey, Kyla. “9 Women Who Helped Win the American Revolution.” Mental Floss, March 30, 2021. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/67905/9-women-who-helped-win-american- revolution . “During Desert Shield/Desert Storm.” Naval History and Heritage Command, November 30, 2017. https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/diversity/women-in-the-navy/ duringdesert-shield-desert-storm.html. “Female Soldiers in the Civil War.” American Battlefield Trust. Accessed June 18, 2023. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/female-soldiers-civil-war . KESTER, MARISSA. “A Man’s World? Women in the Air Force Have Pushed the Boundaries of Perceived Capabilities and Roles.” Citizen Airman: The Official Magazine of the Air National Guard & Air Force Reserve 70, no. 2 (April 2018): 24–27 “Lady Hell Cats Women Marines of World War I.” National Women's History Museum, August 10, 2017. https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/lady-hell-cats-women-marines- worldwar-i . Manning, Lory “Military Service.” United States Department of Labor. Accessed June 18, 2023. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/vets/womenveterans/womenveterans-mil-service . Moore, Emma. “Women in Combat: Five-Year Status Update.” Center for a New American Security (en-US), March 31, 2020. https://www.cnas.org/publications/commentary/women-in-combat-five-year-status-update . “A Mother's Duty to Her Children”: No Women with Dependent Children in the Armed Forces Reserves.” HISTORY MATTERS - The U.S. Survey Course on the Web. Accessed June 18, 2023. http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6256/ . “The Role of Women in the Korean War.” Korean War Legacy Foundation, accessed June 18, 2023. https://koreanwarlegacy.org/chapters/the-role-of-women-in-the-korean-war/ . Spring, Kelly. “In the Military During WWII.” National Women's History Museum, 2017. https://www.womenshistory.org/resources/general/military

12 The United States of America Vietnam War Commemoration. Women Veterans Share Their Experiences During the Vietnam War . YouTube, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=NhdKObnSSmk&ab_channel=TheUnitedStatesofAmericaVietnamWarCommemoratio. “Women in the American Revolution On the Homefront and on the Battlefield.” American Battlefield Trust, January 26, 2017. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/womenamerican-revolution . “Women in World War I.” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, June 16, 2023. https://www.nps.gov/articles/women-in-world-war-i.htm . “Women in WWI.” National WWI Museum and Memorial, January 3, 2020. https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/women . “Women Spies of the Civil War.” Smithsonian Magazine, May 8, 2011. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/women-spies-of-the-civil-war-162202679/ .

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HIS 223 7-2 FINAL PROJECT

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