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W04 Textbook Readings
Food Safety, Food Preservation and Processing Food Security Food security
refers to the availability, accessibility, and adequacy of safe food for all people at all times. Providing safe food depends on understanding how to properly handle, cook and store foods. Food processing and preservation techniques make keeping food safe much easier, reduces food waste, and allows access to safe healthy foods beyond normal harvesting seasons. Both are important aspects of working towards increasing global food security.
Food Safety Hazards in our food come in three basic forms: physical hazards, chemical hazards and biological hazards. A physical hazard includes things like metal shards that may have come off machinery, bone fragments, stones, or fruit pits. Chemical hazards can include pesticides, cleaning solutions, sanitizers, lead, mercury, and other metals. Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses and parasites. A foodborne illness
is an illness caused by eating contaminated food; it is common, costly, and preventable. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that each year 1 in 6 Americans get sick from contaminated food or beverages and 3,000 die from foodborne illness. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that foodborne illnesses cost the United States more than $15.6 billion each year. Foodborne illnesses impact not only individual health but also have an economic impact on food establishments that may have a foodborne illness outbreak. These outbreaks may also affect the general reputation of the food industry. Taken from (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-a
) Foodborne illness can be caused by biological agents (such as bacteria, viruses, parasites) or chemical contaminants. Symptoms of food borne illnesses can range from mild to life threatening and include diarrhea, stomach cramps, vomiting, and/or fever. Pregnant women, young children, older adults, and people with weak immune systems are particularly susceptible to foodborne illness. The focus of this material will mostly be on biological hazards and how to manage them.
Agent Examples Means of transmission Bacteria Salmonella, E Coli Consumption of infected food or water. Food or water can be naturally contaminated (from the source) or through cross-contamination (the transfer of bacteria from its source to other food, water, or object). Virus Norovirus, Hepatitis A Fecal-oral transmission. Improper hand washing or hygiene leads to contaminated food, water or other surfaces where the virus is transmitted. Parasites Tapeworms, Giardia Consuming water, soil, or meat carrying the parasite. To ensure food safety, it is best if good food handling practices start at the farm and continue during transportation and storage. Good food handling practices could include preventing exposure of foods to contaminated water, farm workers practicing good personal hygiene, proper storage temperatures during transportation, and discarding damaged produce that could promote the growth of pathogens. To prevent foodborne illness while preparing foods at home it is important to practice food safety by following the steps: clean
, separate
, cook
, and chill
. This includes cleaning
surfaces and washing hands frequently, separating
raw and cooked foods, cooking
foods to safe temperatures, and chilling
foods quickly followed by storing it at the right temperature. It is also essential to use approved safe water sources while cooking, washing and cleaning. The Center for Disease Control and the United States Department of Agriculture provide the following guidelines on safe food preparation.
Image created by: Center for Disease Control (CDC) Clean: 1. Clean: Wash your hands and surfaces often with safe clean water. ●
Germs that cause food poisoning can survive in many places and spread around the kitchen. ●
Wash your hands
for at least 20 seconds with soap and warm or cold safe water before, during, and after preparing food and before eating. ○
Always wash hands after handling uncooked meat, chicken and other poultry, seafood, flour, or eggs. ○
Be aware of other practical times to wash hands such as after touching garbage, changing a diaper, coughing, sneezing, or blowing your nose, touching pets and after using chemicals. ●
Wash your utensils, cutting surfaces, and countertops with hot, soapy water after preparing each food item. ●
Be sure any towels used for washing dishes or surfaces are cleaned well frequently. ●
Rinse fresh
fruits and vegetables
under clean safe running water if possible. Fresh fruits and vegetables can carry bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Since they are often not cooked, it is important to wash them before eating, if possible. ●
Protect kitchen areas and food from animals, pests, and insects including flies. ●
Animals and insects can be very dirty, even with dirt you cannot see. Adapted from (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-b)
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Cutting boards and other cutting surfaces can be sanitized with a solution of 1 tablespoon of unscented liquid chlorine bleach in a gallon of water. Let it stand on the surface for several minutes and then rinse and air dry. Separate
2. Separate: Don’t cross
-contaminate. ●
Raw meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs can spread germs
to ready-to-eat food unless you keep them separate. ○
When shopping for food, keep raw meat, poultry, seafood, and their juices away from other foods. ○
Keep raw or marinating meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs separate from all other foods in the refrigerator. Store raw meat, poultry, and seafood in sealed containers or packages so the juices don’t leak onto other foods. ○
Use one cutting board or plate for raw meat, poultry, and seafood and a separate cutting board or plate for produce, bread, and other foods that won’t be cooked. Unless cutting utensils are washed and sanitized after use, use different cutting utensils when switching from animal products to foods that won’t be cooked. ○
Do not wash raw meat, poultry, or eggs. Washing these foods can actually
spread germs
because juices may splash onto your sink or counters. ○
Don’t use the same dishes that held raw products to serve cooked products Adapted from (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-b)
Temperature 3. Cook to the right temperature.
●
Cooking food well can kill germs you cannot see. ●
Food is safely cooked when the internal temperature gets high enough to kill germs that can make you sick. The only way to tell if food is safely cooked is to use a food thermometer. You can’t tell if fo
od is safely cooked by checking its color and texture (except for seafood). ●
Use a food thermometer to ensure foods are cooked to a safe internal temperature. Learn how to
place the thermometer correctly
in different food to get an accurate reading (see appendix to this material for proper placement of a thermometer). It is best to wash the probe of the thermometer before re-
inserting into food. ●
Whole cuts of beef, veal, lamb, and pork, including fresh ham: 145°F (63° C) (then allow the meat to rest for 3 minutes before carving or eating) ●
Fish with fins: 145°F (63° C) or cook until the flesh is opaque and separates easily with a fork ●
Ground meats, such as beef and pork: 160°F (71° C) ●
All poultry, including ground chicken and turkey: 165°F (74° C) ●
Leftovers and casseroles: 165°F (74° C) Adapted from (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-b) See the appendix for additional temperature recommendations. Taking the temperature of the meat is the only way to ensure the meat is safe. If it is not possible to check the temperature of cooking meats, be sure it has cooked long enough and hot enough that the internal temperature is sufficient to kill pathogens. By making a cut in the thickest part of the meat or near the bone and observing that the juices run clear, not red or pink can at least provide a rough standard to assess the doneness of the meat ●
Microwave food thoroughly: Follow recommended cooking and standing times. Letting food sit for a few minutes after microwaving allows cold spots to absorb heat from hotter areas and cook more completely.
●
Know your
microwave’s wattage
. Check inside the door, owner’s manual, or manufacturer’s website. If your microwave is high wattage
(800 watts or more), use the minimum cooking time recommended. If it is low wattage (300
–
500 watts), use the maximum cooking time recommended. ●
When reheating, use a food thermometer to make sure that microwaved food reaches 165°F. (74° C) Adapted from (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-b) Chill
4. Chill: Refrigerate promptly. Bacteria can multiply rapidly if left at room temperature or in the “
Danger Zone
” between 40°F (4C) and 140°F (60 C). ●
Keep your refrigerator at 40°F or below and your freezer at 0°F or below, and know when to throw food out before it spoils
. If your refrigerator doesn’t have a built-in thermometer, keep an appliance thermometer inside it to check the temperature. ●
Package warm or hot food into several clean, shallow containers and then refrigerate. It is okay to put small portions of hot food in the refrigerator since they will chill faster. ●
Refrigerate perishable food (meat, seafood, dairy, cut fruit, some vegetables, and cooked leftovers) within 2 hours. If the food is exposed to temperatures above 90°F, like a hot car or picnic, refrigerate it within 1 hour. ●
Thaw frozen food safely in the refrigerator, in
cold water, or as part of the cooking process. If a microwave is used for thawing foods, be certain to thoroughly cook all the food that was defrosted. Never return food that is defrosted in a microwave to the freezer or refrigerator. Never thaw food on the counter because bacteria multiply quickly in the parts of the food that reach room temperature. ●
If refrigeration is not available, it is best to cook only the amount of perishable food that can be eaten during one meal. Adapted from (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.-b) You cannot always tell if a food is unsafe by the way it looks, tastes or smells. So be sure to always follow safe food practices. If the safety of the food is questionable, it is best not to eat it. Following safe food practices can minimize food waste.
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When working to apply or teach good food safety principles it is good to identify where current practices are and look for small improvement steps. The table below shows a gradual progression to best practices. Can Improve Good Better Best Rarely or never disinfects hands, food, utensils and surfaces prior to food preparation. Rarely or never keeps raw and prepared foods separate and rarely or never stores them appropriately. Sometimes disinfects hands, food, utensils and surfaces prior to food preparation. Sometimes keeps raw and prepared foods separate and sometimes stores them appropriately. Usually disinfects hands, food, utensils and surfaces prior to food preparation. Usually keeps raw and prepared foods separate and usually stores them appropriately. Always disinfect hands, food, utensils and surfaces prior to food preparation. Raw and prepared foods are kept separate and always stored in a refrigerator when appropriate. Clean Safe Water
Having a source of clean safe water to wash food and surfaces is critical to prevent food borne illness. Any food that comes in contact with contaminated water can potentially transfer
pathogens to people. Independent of the food preparation process, drinking unsafe water is a primary cause of illness. In children it commonly contributes to poor growth and development. Parasites and diseases can live in water and cause many different health problems, so we need to be careful to drink only clean water. Unclean drinking water can cause diarrhea, dehydration, stomach pain, and many other diseases such as cholera, typhoid, hepatitis B, and polio. These problems can lead to death. Even if water is clean, it can become contaminated when stored improperly or pl
aced in unsanitary containers. It is very important to drink enough clean water every day to stay healthy. Clean water is also important to be used for brushing teeth, making fresh juice or infant formula, washing fruits or vegetables, washing dishes, and anything else relating to food consumption or usage. Signs of unsafe drinking water Signs of unsafe drinking water include the following: ●
Water that looks dirty, cloudy, or colored ●
Water with a smell ●
Animals, garbage, or human waste near the source of the water ●
Water that is not covered when stored ●
Water with a different taste ●
Feeling sick after drinking the water, especially stomach pain or diarrhea Remember that unsafe drinking water does not always show one of these signs. Even if the water has no signs of being unsafe, it could still have parasites that could make you sick. In many places drinking water is available in homes and the safety of the water is monitored by local officials. But that is not always the case. If you have questions about how to find safe drinking water, ask a local official or other trusted people where you can find clean drinking water. Here are some additional considerations: 1. Bottled water can be a reliable source of clean water. Be sure the bottles have not been refilled with unsafe tap or other water and resealed 2. Wells can be a source of clean water, but they should be deep and covered to keep out parasites and disease. They should be cleaned often and fixed if there are any leaks or damage. Talk to your local officials to find out if the water is safe to drink and if the well has been cleaned recently.
Purifying water
You can also research ways to filter or purify your own water. A few ways that can be considered include: 1. Boiling
. This is a cheap and effective way to kill most all pathogens. In a large pot, bring the water to a full, rolling boil for at least 5 minutes. If the water is still cloudy, let it settle an
d then filter it through a clean cloth. 2. Commercial filters and purification system
. There are many kinds of water filters and water purification systems that can be commercially purchased. They vary on method of action, what they will take out of the water, and cost. Filters tend to get things like bacteria and parasites but often can’t take out viruses. Water purification systems are more likely to get bacteria, parasites, and viruses. It is important to understand the limitations of whatever system you are using and how to use it properly. 3. Chemical treatment:
Certain chemicals can be added to water to eliminate pathogens such as chlorine, Iodine or calcium hypochlorite. For example, unscented chlorine bleach products that are approved for disinfection and sanitization can be used to purify water. Be sure to check local guidelines for how to properly use available products for purification 3. Solar disinfection
. Fill reusable (thick plastic or glass) bottles with pre-filtered water and close the cap. Place the bottles in direct sunlight for at least 6 hours (or two days if there is cloudy weather). 4. Evaporation. Place the water in a large bowl or a large hole in the ground, with a smaller clean bowl in the center to collect the water. Cover tightly with a clear sheet of plastic and place a rock or other heavy object on top directly over the small bowl. As the sun heats the water, the water will evaporate. As this clean water hits the plastic, it will run down and drip into the smaller bowl. 5. Catching rainwater
. Rainwater is safe to drink
except in areas with lots of air pollution. Collecting rainwater works best with tin or corrugated metal roofs. The roof and containers need to be kept clean of dirt, dust, and animal droppings that could contaminate the water. Each time it rains, water should not be stored at first
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to allow the water to remove any dirt or droppings that have gathered. After the water is running clean, channel the water into the container to store. 6. Cloth Filter
. Using a cloth as a filter is one of the simplest way
s to clean water but cannot guarantee the water will be safe. Dirt and debris can be removed, some pathogens may be removed, but some may be left behind in the water. Cloth filters are best when combined with other methods, or when other methods are not an option. It is best to use a cotton, tightly knit piece of cloth. Fold the cloth, so the water will be filtered through multiple layers. Hold the cloth over the opening of the container of water, then pour the water into a new, clean container. It is often helpful to collect clean water and store it. To keep it safe, clean drinking water should be stored in clean containers. Be sure to wash a container thoroughly with clean water and soap, and then rinse the container with clean water before storing clean water inside of it.
Water containers should always be kept covered and should be cleaned often. A container with a narrow opening provides fewer opportunities for foreign matter or other contaminants to get into the water. Containers with a wide opening offer increased risks of contamination. Reflection questions: 1. What barriers impact your ability to prepare food safely? 2. What can you do to overcome these barriers? 3. What barriers do you face in getting clean water? 4. How can you ensure the water you are using is safe to use? Food Processing and Preservation Joseph of Egypt was an excellent example of preserving food so resources were available even in difficult times (“Genesis 41: 46
-
57,” 1979)
Processed foods are often mistakenly considered an unhealthy food choice. The term is often associated with foods that have low nutrient value and are rich in empty calories like added sugars and possibly other unhealthy additives. But it is important to understand there is a wide variety of levels of food processing, levels of processing can range from minimally processed foods up to ultra processed foods. The United States Department of Agriculture defines Processed food as:
“Any food that has undergone changes to its n
atural state
—
that is, any raw agricultural commodity subjected to washing, cleaning, milling, cutting, chopping, heating, pasteurizing, blanching, cooking, canning, freezing, drying, dehydrating, mixing, packaging, or other procedures that alter the food from its natural state. The food may include the addition of other ingredients such as preservatives, flavors, nutrients and other food additives or substances approved for use in food products, such as salt, sugars, and fats”
(Harvard T.H. Chan, School of Public Health, n.d.) Food processing typically is associated with the transformation of raw food ingredients into a food product (grinding of wheat to flour, making flour into a sugary dessert), and food preservation is changing food products so they are resistant to spoilage (bottling, drying, freezing etc.). Just so we can be consistent, you can see by the USDA definition, they consider food preservation as a component of food processing. With that in mind, if you wash an apple, grind wheat into flour, dry meat, or chop up carrots and freeze them for later, they are considered a processed food. It is estimated that more than 828 million people lack adequate food (WHO- Global Hunger, 2021), and over 1/3 of the food that is produced globally is wasted (FAO, 2023). Food processing and preservation is a powerful tool to help increase the food supply, food safety and food nutrients to many people that need it. Here are some examples that highlight the benefit of processing foods: 1. Washing, cleaning, and trimming to remove unwanted parts of food, can remove harmful chemicals and pathogens, as well as help the food stay good longer. This is commonly practiced on fresh fruits and vegetables. 2. Additives can be included into food products to reduce bacterial growth or maintain freshness and edibility for longer periods. This is commonly done in many grain and meat products. Foods can also be heat treated and then packaged to reduce bacteria that may cause food spoilage or food to be unsafe. Pasteurization of dairy products is a good example of this. 3. Foods can be bottled, canned, frozen or dried to preserve foods for a later time. Availability of specific foods often varies with seasons. Food preservation can make nutrient rich foods available in times of need. For example, in areas that have long cold winters, foods that contain vitamin C can be hard to find. By being able to preserve fruits and vegetables, rich vitamin C food sources can be available all year round. Food preservation techniques also allow for food to stay good during shipping. This not only reduces food waste but can greatly enhance the variety of food available. From an economic perspective, industries that specialize in food preservation can provide employment opportunities that can be an excellent source of income for individuals in local communities where the food is grown.
4. Food processing can also produce packaged foods. Packaging protects the food from contamination and allows for easy use in tough situations. Ready to use therapeutic foods (RUTF’s) are typically designe
d this way to help in emergency situations. 5. Special medical situations also call for unique food products that can be created through food processing techniques. For example, after a stroke, often people have a hard time swallowing. Food can be processed to a form that makes it more easily swallowed. Specific vitamins and minerals can also be added if needed to address specific needs. For example, in many places’ vitamin D, vitamin A or iodine has been added to food products to prevent deficiency disease. 6. Food processing can also shorten food preparation time and preserve quality and taste. Of course, eating foods as close to garden fresh as possible is often the healthiest way to eat. But in these examples, most of the food products would be considered minimally or maybe moderately processed. Some nutrients may be lost, but the overall long-term benefit in food availability, food safety and convenience are clear. Nutritional concern most often arises when foods are ultra-processed. Typically, this involves the removal of many good nutrients such as key vitamins, minerals, and fiber and then includes the addition of empty calories typically from added sugars and unhealthy fats, as well as the addition of sodium. There is a strong relationship between eating Ultra- processed foods regularly and a wide variety of health issues such as heart disease and diabetes. Food Preservation techniques
A wide variety of techniques are available to preserve food. Some techniques require sophisticated equipment, such as freeze drying. Other methods include fermenting, pickling,
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salting, vacuum packing, smoking, and others. Three techniques that are mostly commonly used at home and require the least amount of special equipment are freezing, drying, and bottling. A brief overview of the principles behind these three techniques will be provided. Freezing Fruits and Vegetables Most foods can be frozen to keep the food safe for extended periods of time if reliable electricity and equipment is available (meats, shelf fish, dairy, grains, fruits, vegetables can all be frozen). In some cases, the quality of the food can be impacted when they are thawed, but generally the growth of harmful bacteria is slowed, and most foods can be frozen and then thawed with excellent outcomes. If done correctly, freezing fresh fruits and vegetables is an excellent way to have nutrient dense foods available any time of the year. Some of the key principles to successfully freezing fruits and vegetables are included below: ●
Food, because it comes from living things, is made up of cells. Typically, these cells contain significant amounts of water. Freezing is a preservation technique used extensively throughout the world. The water that freezes in foods is inside the cells and between cells. When food is frozen slowly, the ice crystals that form tend to be large and often cut cells open. This results in texture changes to the food and in the release of enzymes that degrade food by altering flavor or texture. When the produce is thawed for use the quality can be impacted. Food frozen very rapidly results in much smaller ice crystals and cellular damage is minimized, although not completely eliminated. Rapid freezing techniques are employed as often as it is economically viable to maintain high quality. For some foods, rapid freezing does not provide significant quality gains and is therefore not used because it is a more expensive freezing option, but generally, if possible, rapidly freezing foods produces the best quality frozen food. ●
Cellular damage can also occur during frozen storage. Freezers often have defrost cycles that cause freezer temperatures to fluctuate. These cycles are designed to eliminate frost build up inside the freezer. As the temperature increases, some of the ice in the food melts and then it refreezes slowly as the freezer temperature decreases. This can also result in cellular damage to the food. Food quality is preserved best by rapid freezing and storing at very cold, stable temperatures. It is best to have a thermometer in your freezer and to be sure the temperature stays stable at O°F (-19°C) or below. ●
Because some cellular damage is inevitable in frozen foods, enzymes that are typically trapped inside the cells can be released during freezing or frozen storage. Releasing these enzymes allows them to become active in the food. Enzyme activity can drastically reduce storage life and impact the flavor and texture. These changes
resulting from enzyme activity can be minimized by stopping the enzyme activity before it is frozen. There are a few options for stopping or reducing enzyme activity. Heat treatments often stop enzyme activity. This is done most often on plant food by blanching, especially vegetables. Blanching typically involves placing the food in boiling water for a short period of time. Blanching also kills microbes that could cause food-borne illness and removes air (including oxygen) that is in the fruit or vegetable. Some fruits are not blanched because the loss of texture is more significant than the enzymatic changes that occur during storage. There are many “how to” guides available that give specific blanching times for each type of vegetable. ●
It is important when preparing food for freezing, good quality food is selected, and it is washed in clean water. If the food is cut up, it is best that it is cut in uniform slices and cooled quickly if it is blanched. The food should not be hot when it is put in the freezer, otherwise it can raise the temperature of the freezer and impact the quality and safety of other foods. If the food is blanched it is best to cool it quickly after heat exposure. Dehydrating
Dehydrating is a form of food preservation that has been around for thousands of years. Food has been dried by sunlight or by smoking over a fire. Modern dehydrators also use electricity or other forms of energy to provide heat and air movement to facilitate drying. The basic idea of dehydration is removal of water from food. Sufficient dehydration preserves food by depriving microbes of water and preventing growth. Establishing the level of dryness required for a food to be shelf-stable is best described by the concept of water activity. Water activity is not the same thing as moisture content. It is related to the amount of water that is available to bacteria or other pathogens. In order for pathogens to grow they need water they can use. Even if water is there, it is made unavailable in the food product pathogens cannot grow. For example, two foods may have the same amount of water in the food, but if enough salt is added to one of the foods pathogens may not be able to grow because the salt has bound the water. There are tools available that can measure the water activity of foods. It is best practice to use this method to determine if a dried food is safe, especially for hazardous foods such as meats. If this technology is not available by using before and after weights in the drying
process, doneness can be determined. By feel, fruits should be leathery, but not hard (after the fruit is cooled), and when cut open and pressed there should not be visible moisture. Vegetables tend to feel brittle or tough when done. Canning Canning includes preserving foods in a can or a bottle. A wide variety of foods can be canned, but the technique is very different for low acid foods like meat and most vegetables. Typically, a pressure cooker or retort is required to can these types of foods. Pressure cookers and retorts raise the temperature of the cooking process to high levels making it possible to kill the most stubborn pathogens. When canning low acid foods strict protocols are needed to ensure food safety. High acid like most fruits contains natural acids, and the acids inhibit bacterial growth. Because of this, the heat processing required for fruit is much less intense than the process required for vegetables and meats. This makes canning fruits much more practical at home and will be the focus of the discussion here. The canning process kills microbes, deactivates enzymes, and removes oxygen from the food. All three of these are important events in preserving fruits. The process used commercially differs somewhat from the process used in home preservation, but the objectives are the same and the overall effect is the same. The heat treatment is applied to kill harmful pathogens in the contents of the can or jar, and then the product is cooled with the intent to minimize changes to the food caused by the heat treatment. For example, peaches may be placed in a bottle and placed in boiling water for a specified amount of time. How long the product will stay in the heat treatment will depend on the type of food and the size of jar and even variables such as altitude. Determining the level of heat treatment is an important step for commercial canning. Canning also required some specialized equipment, for example when bottling at home, a big pot that the bottles of fruit can be boiled in is needed, as well as special lids that seal as the fruit cools. Because the purpose of heating is primarily for preventing spoilage in fruit (again because of its high acid content) the process is not tightly regulated as it is for low acid foods. Processors must balance the need to preserve texture by not overcooking with the need to remove oxygen to preserve color and prevent mold growth, and the need to kill vegetative microbes to prevent food borne illness and spoilage. In the United State the USDA Home Canning Guide is used as a guide to safely preserving foods at home (NIFA Staff, 2021). The guide is written with the intent to ensure food safety for the home processor. Because there is no oversight and home processors lack understanding and equipment to create their own protocols, these guidelines are very useful –
even essential for producing safe food, especially low acid food. Speaking generally, the processes in the home canning guide are more severe than those used in commercial production. For canning fruits using processes from the home canning guide, a water bath canner can be used. This type of
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canner uses boiling water as the processing medium. A pressure canner is required for canning low acid foods. For many years members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints have been counseled to do their best to strive to store foods in times of plenty to help during times of scarcity. Learning and being able to apply the food preservatives techniques in this section can help us move towards that goal. President Gordon B Hinckle said
“The best place to have some food set aside is within our homes. …
“We can begin ever so modestly. We can begin with a one week’s food supply and gradually build it to a month, and then to three months. … I fear that so many feel that a long
-term food supply is so far beyond their reach that they make no effort at all. “Begin in a small way, … and gradually build toward a reasonable objective.” (Hinckley, 2002)
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.-a). CDC and Food Safety
. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/cdc-and-food-
safety.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.-b). Four Steps to Food Safety: Clean, Separate, Cook, Chill
. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/keep-food-safe.html Genesis 41: 46-57. (1979). In The Holy Bible, KJV
. Intellectual Reserve, Inc. Harvard T.H. Chan, School of Public Health. (n.d.). Processed Foods and Health
. Harvard T.H. Chan, School of Public Health. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/processed-
foods/ Hinckley, G. B. (2002, November). To Men of the Priesthood. Ensign
, 32
, 58. NIFA Staff. (2021, September 6). USDA’s Complete Guide to Home Canning
. USDA, National Institute of Food and Agriculture. https://www.nifa.usda.gov/about-nifa/blogs/usdas-
complete-guide-home-canning United States Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). Kitchen Thermometers
. USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-
preparation/food-safety-basics/kitchen-thermometers U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (n.d.). Safe Minimum Internal Temperature Chart for Cooking
. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. https://www.foodsafety.gov/food-safety-charts/safe-minimum-internal-temperatures
World Health Organization. (2021). UN Report: Global Hunger numbers rose to as many as 828 million in 2021. https://www.who.int/news/item/06-07-2022-un-report--global-hunger-
numbers-rose-to-as-many-as-828-million-in-2021 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2023). Nutrition: Food Loss and Waste. https://www.fao.org/nutrition/capacity-development/food-loss-and-waste/en/ Appendix Where to place the food thermometer when checking meat temperatures (USDA)
Meat When taking the temperature of beef, pork, or lamb roasts, the food thermometer should be placed midway in the roast, avoiding the bone. When cooking hamburgers, steaks, or chops, insert a thermistor or thermocouple in the thickest part, away from bone, fat, or gristle. If using a dial bimetal thermometer, read "Thin Foods" below. When the food being cooked is irregularly shaped, such as with a beef roast, check the temperature in several places. Poultry FSIS recommends cooking whole poultry to a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F as measured with a food thermometer. For reasons of personal preference, consumers may choose to cook poultry to higher temperatures. Check the internal temperature in the innermost part of the thigh and wing and the thickest part of the breast. For optimum safety, do not stuff poultry. If stuffing whole poultry, the center of the stuffing must reach a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F. If cooking poultry parts, insert food thermometer into the thickest area, avoiding the bone. The food thermometer may be inserted sideways if necessary. When the food is irregularly shaped, the temperature should be checked in several places. Thin Foods When measuring the temperature of a thin food, such as a hamburger patty, pork chop, or chicken breast, a thermistor or thermocouple food thermometer should be used, if possible. However, if using an "instant-read" dial bimetallic-coil food thermometer, the probe must be inserted in the side of the food so the entire sensing area (usually 2-3 inches) is positioned through the center of the food. To avoid burning fingers, it may be helpful to remove the food from the heat source (if cooking on a grill or in a frying pan) and insert the food thermometer sideways after placing the item on a clean spatula or plate. Combination Dishes
For casseroles and other combination dishes, place the food thermometer into the thickest portion of the food or the center of the dish. Egg dishes and dishes containing ground meat and poultry should be checked in several places. From (United States Department of Agriculture, n.d.) Additional Cooking Temperatures
(U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, n.d.)
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