GEOG2020 Exam Prep

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Carleton University *

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2020

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Geology

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Jan 9, 2024

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Topic 1: The Lithosphere – Endogenic Processes / Geological Regions of Canada 1. The three rock types formed by the geologic cycle are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from the solidification and cooling of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation and lithification of sediment. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks through heat and pressure. 2. Three types of igneous rocks are granite, basalt, and andesite. Three types of metamorphic rocks are marble, slate, and quartzite. Three types of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, shale, and limestone. 3. Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies beneath the Earth's surface, while extrusive igneous rocks form when lava cools and solidifies on the Earth's surface. The main difference between them is the rate at which they cool, with intrusive rocks cooling slowly and extrusive rocks cooling quickly. 4. The type of organic rock common in Alberta is oil shale. Organic rocks form from the accumulation and compaction of organic material, such as plants and animals, over millions of years. 5. The Canadian Shield, formed around 2.5 billion years ago through a process of accretion and collision of smaller continents and volcanic island arcs. The craton is composed of some of the oldest rocks on Earth, including granite and gneiss, and covers much of Canada and parts of the United States. 6. An accretionary terrane is a geologic unit that has been added to a continent through tectonic processes, such as subduction and collision. Accretionary terranes are relevant to the geology of western Canada because the region is characterized by a complex history of tectonic activity and accretion, resulting in a diverse range of rocks and geologic features. 7. Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust and can be subducted under continental crust when the two meet at a convergent plate boundary. As the oceanic crust subducts, it melts and contributes to the formation of magma, which can then rise to the surface and form volcanic arcs. This process is responsible for the formation of features such as the Pacific Ring of Fire. 8.

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11. On the map of Canada provided: a) identify the full names of the geological provinces (regions) of Canada (4 marks) - Canadian Shield, Interior Platform, Innuitian Orogen, Cordilleran Orogen, Appalachian Orogen, continental Margins. b) indicate the most likely location of volcanic rocks. (1 mark) - Found in BC mountainous regions c) indicate (by lightly shading it in) the main region of rocks of Mesozoic age. (1 mark) - Interior Platform d) indicate the geological region most likely to have metamorphic but no sedimentary rocks. (1 mark) - Innuitian Orogen e) indicate the geological region most likely to both metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. (1 mark) - Cordilleran

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12. Below is a diagrammatic cross section of the geological structure of Canada from west to east. For each of the numbered units (1 to 6, west to east) complete the table below. (15 marks) Unit Geologic Province/Unit Geologic era/eon Approximate Age (Ma) 1 Oceanic crust Cenozoic <65 Ma 2 Cordillera orogen Mesozoic ~65 Ma 3 Western canada sedimentary basin platform Paleozoic/Mesozoic 550-65 Ma 4 Canadian Shield Precambrian 65-250 Ma 5 Appalachians Paleozoic ~550-250 Ma 13. The interior plains are primarily composed of sedimentary rock. 14. The Canadian Shield rocks that underlie the National Capital Region (Ottawa) are around 1 billion years old and belong to the Precambrian age. 15. The Canadian Shield was created through a process of accretion and collision of smaller continents and volcanic island arcs, which began around 2.5 billion years ago. Over time, sedimentary and volcanic rocks were added to the continent, and the region was repeatedly subjected to tectonic activity, including uplift, folding, and faulting.

Topic 2: Canada’s Climate and climate change 16. The primary cause of Canada's seasons is the tilt of the Earth's axis, which causes different parts of the planet to receive different amounts of sunlight at different times of the year. 17. In summer, Canada is affected by two main air masses: the maritime tropical air mass, which brings warm and humid conditions from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, and the continental polar air mass, which brings cool and dry conditions from the north. 18. In winter, Canada is affected by two main air masses: the maritime polar air mass, which brings moist and mild conditions from the Pacific Ocean, and the continental Arctic air mass, which brings cold and dry conditions from the north. 19. A maritime polar air mass originating in the Pacific Ocean may be modified as it moves eastward across the Canadian landmass by becoming cooler and drier, as it loses moisture over the mountains and cools over the colder land surface. 20. Orographic lifting is a process by which air is forced to rise over a mountain range, leading to the formation of clouds and precipitation on the windward side of the mountain. In Canada, this process influences rainfall patterns on the west and east sides of the Rockies by causing moist air to rise and cool as it moves inland from the Pacific Ocean, leading to high levels of precipitation on the west side of the mountains, and causing dry conditions on the east side of the mountains due to a rain shadow effect. 21. Vancouver has the highest total annual precipitation of the three cities, with an average of around 1115 mm per year, while Calgary has an average of around 415 mm per year and Winnipeg has an average of around 524 mm per year. The pattern is that precipitation generally decreases from west to east across Canada, due to the prevailing westerly winds and the influence of the Rockies. 22. A chinook wind is a warm and dry wind that occurs on the eastern slopes of the Rockies, primarily in southern Alberta. It is caused by the descent of warm, dry air on the lee side of the mountains, as air is forced to rise and cool on the windward side of the mountains. 23. The three main geographic factors affecting the temperature of any location in Canada are latitude, altitude, and proximity to water. Latitude determines the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth's surface, altitude affects the temperature by causing air to cool as it rises, and proximity to water can moderate temperatures by transferring heat between the water and the air. 24. The El Nino phenomenon can affect Canada's winter and summer weather by causing changes in ocean temperatures, which can lead to changes in atmospheric circulation patterns. In winter, it can lead to milder and drier conditions in western Canada, while in summer, it can lead to wetter conditions in eastern Canada. 25. The main factors that give rise to Canada's predominantly westerly wind patterns are the rotation of the Earth, which creates the Coriolis effect, and the influence of high- and low-

pressure systems, which can cause air to move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. 26. The Arctic Circle is a line of constant latitude located at approximately 66.5 degrees North of the Equator. This line signifies the southernmost point at which the sun remains above the horizon for 24 hours during the summer solstice and below the horizon for 24 hours during the winter solstice. It is an important boundary that marks the region where the polar day and polar night phenomena occur and is often used to define the limits of the Arctic region. 27. Lake-effect snowfall is a weather phenomenon that occurs when cold air moves over a relatively warmer body of water, such as a lake. As the air passes over the lake, it picks up moisture and warmth, which causes it to become more unstable and rise. As the air rises, it cools and the moisture in it condenses, forming clouds and eventually snow. This process can result in heavy snowfall downwind of the lake, particularly in areas that are located in the path of prevailing winds. 28. The eastern part of Canada is most likely to get freezing rain because warm, moist air from the Atlantic Ocean flows over the cold air trapped near the ground in winter, causing the precipitation to freeze on contact with the ground or other surfaces. Topic 3: Canada’s Glacial and Periglacial Landscapes 29. Glaciers form in regions where snow accumulates and does not melt entirely in the summer. 30. Glacier mass balance refers to the difference between the amount of snow and ice that accumulates on a glacier and the amount of ice that melts or flows out of the glacier each year. 31. Warm-based glaciers occur in areas where temperatures are above freezing throughout the year, causing the ice to deform and flow. Cold-based glaciers occur in areas where temperatures remain below freezing, causing the ice to freeze to the underlying surface and move through sliding or basal sliding. 32. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of Canada 21,000 years BP, extended as far south as the Ohio and Missouri River valleys 14,000 years BP, and retreated to the northern part of Canada 7,000 years BP. 33. The location and extent of glaciers and ice sheets in Canada today are primarily in the Arctic regions, including Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

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34. Erosional landforms created by alpine glaciation in Canada include cirques, aretes, horns, U- shaped valleys, and hanging valleys. Cirques are bowl-shaped depressions carved out by glaciers. Aretes are narrow ridges that form when glaciers erode parallel valleys on opposite sides of a ridge. Horns are pyramidal peaks that are formed when several glaciers erode a mountain from different sides. U-shaped valleys are formed when glaciers widen and deepen existing V-shaped valleys. Hanging valleys are formed when tributary valleys are left hanging above the floor of a main valley. 35. Depositional landforms created by alpine glaciation in Canada include moraines, outwash plains, kames, eskers, and drumlins. Moraines are ridges of glacial till that are left behind as glaciers retreat. Outwash plains are flat areas of sediment that are deposited by meltwater streams flowing out of glaciers. Kames are small, cone-shaped hills that are formed when sediment is deposited in openings in the ice. Eskers are long, winding ridges of gravel and sand that are deposited by meltwater streams flowing under a glacier. Drumlins are elongated hills that are streamlined in the direction of ice flow. 36. Erosional landforms created by continental glaciation in Canada include drumlins and eskers. Drumlins are elongated hills that are streamlined in the direction of ice flow. Eskers are long, winding ridges of gravel and sand that are deposited by meltwater streams flowing under a glacier. 37. Depositional landforms created by continental glaciation in Canada include moraines, eskers, outwash plains, kettle lakes, and till plains. Moraines are ridges of glacial till that are left behind as glaciers retreat. Eskers are long, winding ridges of gravel and sand that are deposited by meltwater streams flowing under a glacier. Outwash plains are flat areas of sediment that are deposited by meltwater streams flowing out of glaciers. Kettle lakes are formed when a block of ice is left behind by a retreating glacier and then melts, leaving a depression. Till plains are flat areas of glacial till that are deposited by continental glaciers. 38. A periglacial climate is a climate characterized by cold temperatures, little precipitation, and the presence of permafrost.

39. Discontinuous permafrost is found in areas where the ground is frozen in some areas but not in others. Continuous permafrost is found in areas where the ground is frozen throughout the year, without any areas of unfrozen ground. 40. The permafrost "active layer" is the uppermost layer of soil or rock that thaws and refreezes on an annual basis in areas where permafrost is present. It is the layer that lies above the permanently frozen ground of the permafrost layer. 41. - Thermal erosion: This occurs when heat from a body of water or from geothermal activity melts the permafrost, creating a talik. Thermal erosion is often responsible for the formation of taliks in river valleys and other areas where water is present. - Cryopeg formation: Cryopegs are unfrozen lenses of groundwater that occur within permafrost. As these lenses grow, they can create a talik by melting the surrounding permafrost. - Insulation: In some cases, a layer of insulating material such as vegetation, snow, or rock can prevent the freezing of the ground, leading to the formation of a talik 42. Permafrost and its active layer vary with latitude in Canada. In the far north, permafrost is continuous, and the active layer is thin or absent. In the subarctic region, permafrost is discontinuous, and the active layer is thicker. In the southernmost part of the permafrost zone, permafrost is sporadic, and the active layer is even thicker, providing favorable conditions for agriculture and human settlement. 43. One of the periglacial processes of mass movement is solifluction. Solifluction is a slow downslope movement of soil and sediment that occurs in areas with a thick active layer of soil or rock that is underlain by permafrost. During the summer months, the active layer thaws and becomes saturated with water, but the underlying permafrost remains frozen. Solifluction can result in a variety of landforms, including terraces, lobes, and stripes, and can have significant impacts on infrastructure, such as roads and pipelines, that are built in permafrost regions. Topic 4: Canada’s Soils 44. Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and organisms that covers the Earth's surface and supports plant growth. 45. The main soil horizons are:  O horizon: This is the surface layer of organic material, such as dead leaves and twigs, that is constantly being added to by plant and animal debris.  A horizon: This is the topsoil layer that contains a mixture of organic matter and mineral particles. It is usually darker in color than the subsoil below it.  E horizon: This layer is typically lighter in color than the A or B horizons and contains less organic matter. It is often leached of minerals and clay particles, which have been transported to lower horizons.

 B horizon: This is the subsoil layer that is often richer in minerals and clay than the A horizon above it. It may have a distinct structure or texture different from the layers above or below it.  C horizon: This layer consists of weathered rock fragments and other materials that have been broken down by physical and chemical weathering.  R horizon: This is the unweathered bedrock layer that underlies all of the other horizons. 46. The four main processes that create soil horizons are:  Addition: when there is more material added to the soil profile through alluviation.  Losses: the loss/removal of material from the soil profile through illuviation.  Translocation: the movement of organic or mineral matter mining throughout the profile/horizons.  Transformation: a material in the soil transforms into something else, like leaf litter decomposing or rock being weathered 47. The five controls on soil type are:  Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and other climatic factors affect the rate of weathering, the amount of organic matter, and the type of vegetation that grows on the soil.  Parent material: The rocks and minerals that form the basis for soil development determine the initial characteristics of the soil.  Topography: The slope, aspect, and elevation of the land affect the amount of water and nutrients that are available to plants and the rate of erosion.

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 Organisms: The types of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live in the soil affect the amount of organic matter and nutrients present in the soil.  Time: Soil formation is a slow process that takes thousands of years, so the age of the soil affects its properties and characteristics. 48. Glacial parent materials are typically unsorted mixtures of rock and sediment deposited by glaciers. These materials are often poorly sorted and may contain boulders, gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Non-glacial parent materials are typically more uniform in composition and may consist of sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic rocks. 49. The Canadian Shield is typically underlain by granite and other igneous and metamorphic rocks, which weather slowly to produce acidic soils with low fertility. The Arctic region is typically underlain by permafrost and other frozen soils, which limit soil development and restrict plant growth. 50. Soil porosity refers to the amount of pore space in the soil, which affects its ability to hold water. Soils with high porosity have more pore space and can hold more water than soils with low porosity. For example, peat soils found in wetlands have high porosity and can hold large amounts of water, making them important for flood control and water storage. 51. Podzolic soils are typically found under forested ecosystems in Canada. These soils are acidic, have low fertility, and are characterized by a thin, dark A horizon and a light-colored E horizon. They are often found in regions with high rainfall and cool temperatures. 52. Chernozemic soils are typically found under grassland ecosystems in Canada. The high organic matter content of this soil type contributes to its dark color and its ability to retain moisture and nutrients. It is also well-drained, with a deep layer of topsoil that is ideal for plant growth. 53. Organic soils are soils that contain a high percentage of organic matter, typically greater than 30% by weight. They are formed in areas where the rate of organic matter production exceeds the rate of decomposition, such as in wetlands, bogs, and peatlands. In Canada, organic soils are found primarily in the northern regions, particularly in the Hudson Bay Lowlands, the Mackenzie River Delta, and the coastal regions of the Arctic. Topic 5: Weathering 54. The five main factors affecting weathering processes are climate, rock type, topography, vegetation, and time. - Climate influences weathering processes by determining the amount and type of precipitation, temperature fluctuations, and freeze-thaw cycles. - Rock type affects weathering processes by determining the susceptibility of the rock to chemical and physical weathering. - Topography influences weathering processes by determining the rate and direction of water flow and the degree of exposure to the elements. - Vegetation affects weathering processes by influencing the availability of moisture, temperature, and the presence of organic acids. - Time affects weathering processes by allowing for cumulative effects of weathering processes to occur over long periods.

55. Physical weathering is the process of breaking down rocks and other materials into smaller pieces through mechanical processes such as temperature changes, freezing and thawing cycles, and abrasion by wind and water. Chemical weathering is the process of breaking down rocks and other materials through chemical reactions, such as exposure to water, air, and acids. This can lead to the dissolution or alteration of minerals in the rock, resulting in the breakdown and erosion of the material over time. Topic 6: Canada’s River Systems 56. Surface runoff occurs when precipitation exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil, meaning the soil is already saturated or impermeable, and water cannot penetrate it. This causes water to flow over the surface of the land. 57. In the pre-glacial period, the drainage systems of North America were less complex, with fewer major river systems. During the Pleistocene ice age, continental glaciers formed and advanced across North America, altering the landscape and creating many of the major river systems that exist today. 58. Dendritic drainage patterns are typical of regions with a uniform geology and slope, where channels form in a random pattern like the branches of a tree. 59. Deranged drainage patterns are typical of regions with chaotic or disturbed geology, such as areas recently affected by glacial activity or landslides. 60. - Meandering channels have a sinuous, winding path and are often associated with floodplains and meander scars. - Straight channels have a linear path and are typically found in areas with steep slopes. - Braided channels are characterized by multiple channels and bars that frequently shift and change. 61. Beavers create dams and alter the course of rivers, which can cause local flooding and change the hydrology of the surrounding area. They can also create wetlands, which provide important habitats for many species. 62. The St. Lawrence River is a large river system that drains the Great Lakes into the Atlantic Ocean. It is an important transportation route and supports a variety of commercial and recreational activities. The river is heavily managed and regulated for hydropower generation and navigation. 63. A storm hydrograph is a graph that shows the response of a river to a single rainfall event. It shows how the river discharge changes over time, with a s harp rise and fall in response to the rainfall. 64. Antecedent rainfall can affect the form of a storm hydrograph by increasing the initial water content of the soil, which reduces the infiltration capacity and increases surface runoff. This can cause a more rapid rise in river discharge during a rainfall event.

Topic 7: Canada’s Coastlines 65. An increased frequency of severe storms can cause increased coastal erosion and flooding along Canada's Eastern coastline. This can have significant impacts on coastal communities and infrastructure. 66. Coastal Erosion: - The Bay of Fundy - located between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, is known for its extreme tides. The powerful tides cause erosion of the coastline, resulting in sea cliffs, sea stacks, and rocky shorelines. - Prince Edward Island National Park - beaches are constantly being eroded by the strong currents and waves of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This erosion has caused the loss of several important cultural and historical sites, including the remains of early Acadian settlements. - Cape Breton Highlands – in Nova Scotia, is subject to constant erosion due to the harsh weather conditions and strong winds. As a result, the coastline is constantly changing, with cliffs crumbling and falling into the sea. Coastal Deposition: - The Magdalen Islands - group of islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The sand on these beaches is constantly being deposited by the ocean currents, creating beautiful dunes and shorelines. - Hopewell Rocks - located in New Brunswick, unique rock formations that have been shaped by the tides. Over time, sediment has been deposited around the base of the rocks, creating a unique and beautiful landscape. - Sable Island – in Nova Scotia. The island is also known for its sand dunes that have been shaped by the wind and ocean currents over time. The sand on the island is constantly being deposited and shifted, creating a unique and constantly changing landscape. Topic 8: Canada’s Ecosystems 67. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and with their physical environment. 68. Ecosystem stability is closely related to biodiversity, as ecosystems with higher biodiversity are generally more resilient and resistant to disturbances. A more biodiverse ecosystem is better able to adapt to changes in the environment and maintain its overall function. 69. Decomposers are important in nutrient-limited ecosystems because they break down dead organic matter and release nutrients back into the ecosystem, making them available for uptake by other organisms. 70. Primary succession occurs when a new habitat is formed where there was no previous soil, while secondary succession occurs when a disturbance has occurred that has removed the existing vegetation but left the soil intact. Primary succession usually takes longer than secondary succession because there is no existing soil to support plant growth.

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71. Forest fires are not always bad for forests in Canada. In fact, many Canadian ecosystems are adapted to periodic fire, and some species require fire to regenerate. - the boreal forest: fire is a natural and important part of the ecosystem, and some tree species, such as lodgepole pine, have cones that only open in response to fire. 72. Forest fires can have a significant impact on forest succession by removing the existing vegetation and creating new opportunities for growth. Fire can also release nutrients into the soil and create a more diverse landscape, which can support a wider range of species. 73. After a forest fire, the nutrients contained in the forest are released into the soil. This can stimulate new growth and contribute to the regeneration of the forest ecosystem. 74. Two disturbances that can affect succession in Canadian grasslands are grazing by livestock and fires caused by lightning or human activity. 75. The west coast temperate rainforest is characterized by cool, wet, and mild climates. It receives a lot of precipitation and has a long growing season. The dominant vegetation in this region is tall, evergreen trees such as Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, and western red cedar. Understory vegetation includes ferns, mosses, and shrubs. 76. The boreal forest is characterized by cold, long winters and short, warm summers. It is also a relatively dry region. The dominant vegetation is coniferous trees such as spruce, pine, and fir, and the forest floor is covered with a layer of mosses, lichens, and low-growing shrubs. The soil in this region is often acidic and nutrient-poor. 77. The broadleaf and mixed forest are characterized by a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The vegetation is dominated by deciduous trees such as maple, birch, and oak, as well as coniferous trees such as spruce, fir, and pine. The mixed forest is a transition zone between the boreal forest and the broadleaf forest and contains both coniferous and deciduous trees. 78. Canada's mid-latitude grasslands (prairies) have a semi-arid continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. Precipitation is relatively low and occurs mainly in the summer. Vegetation is dominated by grasses and shrubs such as sagebrush, cactus, and prairie grasses like big bluestem and buffalo grass. 79. A drier climate on Canada's west coast due to climate change would likely lead to a reduction in the extent of the temperate rainforest. The trees that make up the r ainforest require a lot of water, and if there is less rainfall, they may not be able to survive. The remaining forest may become more fragmented, and some tree species may shift their range northward to find cooler and wetter habitats. 80. Local variations in topography can have a significant effect on vegetation type. For example, areas with a high water table are more likely to support wetland vegetation, while areas with steep slopes may support only certain types of vegetation that can tolerate the difficult terrain. Differences in soil depth, drainage, and nutrient availability can also impact vegetation type. 81. (Diagram not provided as I am a text-based AI language model)

Along a transect from west to east in Canada's grasslands, the climate becomes increasingly dry, with less precipitation and more extreme temperatures. The soils become thinner and less fertile, with a greater proportion of sand and gravel in the east. The vegetation changes from tallgrass prairie dominated by species such as big bluestem and Indian grass in the wetter west to shortgrass prairie dominated by species such as buffalo grass and blue grama in the drier east. 82. The treeline in northern Canada responds to climate warming by shifting northward and upward in elevation. As temperatures warm, trees are able to grow at higher latitudes and altitudes where they were previously limited by cold temperatures. However, the rate of treeline advance is slow and may not keep up with the pace of warming, leading to a reduction in the extent of the tundra biome. 83. The challenges for plant life in the Arctic include short growing seasons, cold temperatures, permafrost, low nutrient availability, and low light levels during the winter. Arctic plants have adapted to these conditions by having shallow roots to access nutrients near the surface, growing close to the ground to reduce exposure to the wind, and having small leaves to minimize water loss. They may also have adaptations such as antifreeze compounds to survive freezing temperatures, and some plants have a red pigment that absorbs more sunlight during the low-light periods of winter.

GEOG2020 Exam Prep

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