FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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Ivy Tech Community College, Indianapolis *
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Course
100
Subject
Geology
Date
Dec 6, 2023
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docx
Pages
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Uploaded by AmbassadorTank6981
MATERIAL COVERED ON TEST 1
1.
Define Earth Science and all its components.
Earth science studies Earth’s structure, properties, and processes. It includes all the sciences,
geology, oceanography, meteorology, and astronomy, and all collectively seek to understand Earth and
its neighbors in space. First, geology deals with Earth’s physical structure and substance, its history,
and the processes that act on it. Next, oceanography is the science that studies the physical and
biological properties and phenomena of the seas. Meteorology concerns the process and phenomena of
the atmosphere. At the same time, astronomy explores celestial objects, space, and the physical
universe.
2.
What is the age of the Earth?
Earth is 4.6 billion years old.
3.
Define mineral, silicate, and carbonate.
Geologists define a mineral as any naturally occurring inorganic solid with an orderly crystalline
structure and a definite chemical composition that allows for some variation. It exhibits
characteristics: Naturally occurring, generally organic solid
Substance, orderly crystalline structure,
and definite chemical composition.
Silicates are the most common mineral group composed of silicon and oxygen atoms and have
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their fundamental building block.
Carbonate is any member of a family of minerals containing carbonate ions and one or more kinds
of positive ions of the basic structure composition unit.
4.
Define silicate and describe quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Silicates are the most common mineral group composed of silicon and oxygen atoms and have
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their fundamental building block. Quartz is the second most abundant
mineral in Earth’s continental crust and the only common silicate mineral consisting entirely of silicon
and oxygen. In addition, it is hard, resists weathering, and does not have cleavage because of its three-
dimensional framework developed through the complete sharing of oxygen by adjacent silicon atoms.
When quartz is clear, it develops hexagonal crystal that forms pyramid-shaped ends if allowed to grow
without interference. However, quartz is often colored by impurities and forms without creating good
crystal faces.
Feldspar is a group of rock-forming aluminum tectosilicate minerals containing sodium, calcium,
potassium, or barium. Lastly, the mica mineral silicate structure is layered in thin sheers and has
excellent cleavage in one direction.
5.
Define carbonate.
How do carbonates form?
List some common carbonates.
Carbonate (mineral) is any member of a family of minerals containing carbonate ions and one or
more kinds of positive ions of the basic structure composition unit. Such rocks form near the Earth’s
surface by precipitation from solution at surface temperatures or by accumulating and lithifying
fragments of preexisting rocks or remains of organisms. The most common are calcite and dolomite,
usually found together as constituents in sedimentary rocks, limestone, and dolostone.
6.
Describe the differences between cleavage, fracture, streak, hardness, and luster.
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding. These minerals have
a weak bond in one direction and cleave to form thin, flat sheets. However, some have excellent
cleavage in one, two, three, or more directions, while others have poor or no cleavage. However,
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minerals with chemical bonds equally or nearly equally strong in all directions exhibit a fracture. In
which the minerals produce uneven surfaces and are described as having an irregular fracture.
Streak and luster are both optical properties of minerals. However, they differ as luster is the
appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral. In contrast, a streak is the color
of a mineral in a powdered form and is obtained by rubbing the mineral across a streak plate and
observing the color of the mark left behind. Lastly, hardness differs -from the previous four as it tells
us what the strength of the mineral is. Thus, it measures a mineral's resistance to abrasion or
scratching. Unlike a steak, hardness is determined by running a mineral of unknown hardness against
one of known hardness or vice versa.
7.
Define
A.
rock and
B.
ore.
A.
A rock is defined as any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that occurs naturally as part of
Earth.
B.
Ore is a naturally occurring concentration of one or more metallic minerals that can be extracted
economically. Commonly used ore also applies to some nonmetallic minerals like fluorite and sulfur.
8.
What are the 2 different types of
A.
Igneous Rocks
B.
Sedimentary Rocks
C.
Metamorphic Rocks?
How are they different?
A.
Intrusive and extrusive rocks are two types of igneous rocks. Intrusive is formed when molten rock
crystallizes under the Earth’s surface, and extrusive is formed when molten rock solidifies at the
Earth’s surface.
B.
Sedimentary rocks are detrital and chemical sedimentary rocks. Detrital rocks are made of
sediments from weathered rocks like sandstone and shale. However, chemical rocks are formed from
material carried in solution to lakes and seas.
C.
Metamorphic rocks are produced from preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic
rocks. The two types are foliate and nonfoliate, where foliate is flatly arranged, very fine-grained
minerals with the rock appearing as layered bands. Nonfoliates are not flatly arranged mineral grains.
Instead, they form in minimal deformation environments, and the parent rocks are composed of
minerals with a simple chemical composition.
9.
Define regional and contact metamorphism.
How are they different?
What is foliation?
Contact metamorphism occurs when rock minerals and texture are changed by heat due to contact
with magma. Regional metamorphism occurs when rock minerals are changed by high heat and
pressure associated with large-scale deformation. However, foliation refers to any nearly flat
arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within a rock.
10. How does the rate of cooling of a molten igneous rock affect the resulting crystal sizes?
When the rate of cooling a molten igneous rock is slower, this results in larger crystal sizes.
Whereas when the cooling rate is faster, such results in smaller crystal sizes. Therefore, when the
cooling rate is slower, the crystals have time to grow, resulting in larger crystals, and when it is faster,
they do not have time to grow, resulting in smaller crystals.
11. Sketch or describe all parts of the rock cycle.
The rock cycle is the continuous transformation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
Such transformation occurs by physical changes made through melting, cooling, eroding, compaction,
and deformation. The rocks then undergo crystallization, metamorphism, erosion, and sedimentation
processes. Compacting organic materials like plants, shells, and bones form sedimentary rocks, and
metamorphic rocks are formed through metamorphism when exposed to high pressure or
temperatures. Further, igneous rocks form when molten hot rocks cool and solidify inside or outside
the Earth’s crust.
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The first step in the cycle is when the rocks on the surface of the Earth are broken down by wind
and water, known as weathering and erosion. Next, they go through a process known as transportation
in which sediments are moved along, like when pebbles are rolled along a riverbed. Then, the
sediments or soil are added to the land, known as deposition. In other words, it builds or creates
landforms. Afterward, the sediments go through the compaction process in which they are pushed
together by the weight of water and then glued together by minerals like silica and calcium through
cementation. The next step of the cycle is metamorphism; during the process, the rocks are altered due
to pressure or heat that changes the rock's appearance. Lastly is the melting process in which the rocks
melt into magma.
12. Describe the difference between a scientific hypothesis, theory, and law.
A scientific hypothesis is a tentative explanation tested to determine whether it is valid. Once a
hypothesis is formed, a scientific theory, a well-tested and widely accepted view explaining certain
observable facts, is formed. Lastly, law is the mathematical relationship currently found to be true.
13. Describe Alfred Wegener’s ground-breaking theory. Give evidence in support of his idea.
Why
did the scientific community not initially accept it?
Alfred Wegener’s theory was that all the continents were once joined in a single landmass
(supercontinent Pangea) and have since drifted apart. He gathered evidence from different scientific
fields to support his theory of continental drift by studying land features, fossils, and proof of climate
change. Additionally, Alfred noticed that mountain ranges of both continents line up and that
European coal fields match up with coal fields in North America. Initially, the scientific community
did not accept this as he had no credible mechanism to move the continents, and thus, he proposed
tidal movement.
14. Define Plate Tectonics.
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how landforms are created with the structure of
Earth’s crust. The theory proposes that Earth’s outer shell consists of individual plates interacting in
various ways, thus producing earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and the crust itself.
15. Define convection.
Convection is the transfer of heat by moving a mass or substance, and it can only occur in fluids.
16. What are the 3 types of plate boundaries?
Describe the type of motion that is occurring at each
boundary.
Convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries are the three types of plate boundaries. With
convergent plate boundaries, two plates move toward each other. In contrast, two plates move apart in
divergent plate boundaries. Further, in transform plate boundaries, two plates grind past each other
without producing or destroying the lithosphere.
17. What are the 3 different types of convergent plate boundaries? Describe the type of motion that
is occurring at each.
Oceanic-Continental plate boundaries, Oceanic-Oceanic plate boundaries, and Continental-
Continental plate boundaries are the different types of convergent plate boundaries. Oceanic-oceanic
landmasses move toward the margin of another. While two oceanic slabs converge, one descends
beneath the other in oceanic-oceanic plate boundaries. Lastly, in oceanic continental, the plate's
leading edge, capped with continental crust, converges with a slab of the oceanic lithosphere; the
buoyant continental block remains “floating” while the denser oceanic slabs sink into the mantle.
18. How does the age of the ocean floor help prove plate tectonics?
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The age of the ocean floor shows a new sea floor being created at plate boundaries and that there
is not a sea floor older than 180 million years old. The ocean floor is younger at a mid-ocean ridge and
older farther from that ridge, proving that new crust forms at the mid-ocean ridge.
19. Describe several differences between the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
What is a tectonic
plate?
The lithosphere is the plate tectonic and strong outer layer consisting of the crust and part of the
mantle. The asthenosphere is a weak region in the mantle and is an easily deformed layer that acts as a
lubricant for tectonic plates to slide over. In addition, a tectonic plate is a coherent unit of Earth’s rigid
outer layer that includes the crust and upper unit. This shell is divided by lines of faults, plate creation
ridges, and plate destruction zones.
20. What & where is the Ring of Fire?
A major area in the Pacific Ocean basin is where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur.
It includes a chain of continental volcanoes distributed along the west coast of the Americas, including
the large cones of the Andes in South America and the Cascade Range of the western United States
and Canada.
21. What are the 3 types of volcanoes?
Describe the differences between each type.
Three types of volcanoes are a shield, cinder cone, and composite. The difference between the
three structures is that shield volcanoes are broad, slightly domed, and composed mostly of lava flows
from a central vent. Cinder cone volcanoes are steep, with straight sides between thirty and forty
degrees. They are also constructed of mostly tephra, a fragmented polyelastic material. Composite
volcanoes have an upward concave slope and a small summit crater.
22. How is a hot spot different than most other volcanoes?
A hot spot differs as it forms when a plume of magma rises from the mantle, melting through
whatever crust is above it. It is unique as it does not occur at the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates,
where other volcanoes occur.
23. What are the characteristics of magma that create explosive eruptions?
Magma that creates explosive eruptions is high in silica, making it thick and sticky. The magma
builds up in the volcano, and dissolved gases cannot escape from the thick magma it produces.
24. What are the differences between an earthquake epicenter and a focus?
An earthquake's epicenter is the point on Earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter. The focus,
also called the hypocenter, is where slippage begins.
25. Describe Earth’s Interior Layers.
Earth’s interior layers comprise the crust, mantle, and inner and outer cores. The crust is the
outermost layer made from solid rock and minerals. It is also divided into two layers: the continental
crust, which covers the land, and the oceanic crust, which covers the water. Next is the mantle, which
lies between the outer layer, the crust, and the outer core, consisting of silicate rocks divided into the
lower and upper mantle. The lower mantle is softer and begins to melt, and the upper mantle is hard
and brittle.
The inner core consists mainly of iron and is the hottest and solid layer. The outer core consists
primarily of iron and nickel and lies between the inner core and mantle. Unlike the inner core, this
layer is liquid. Additionally, there is also the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The lithosphere is Earth's
outer solid, and the asthenosphere is a soft, weak layer extending 350km.
26. How is oceanic crust different than continental crust?
4
Unlike oceanic crust, which has a relatively homogenous chemical composition, continental crust
consists of many rock types and is thicker than oceanic crust. Additionally, the oceanic crust covers
water rather than landmasses that the continental crust covers.
27. What is a tsunami, and how is it created?
A tsunami is a major undersea earthquake that may set a series of large ocean waves in motion.
They are created by displacement along a megathrust fault that suddenly lifts a large slab of seafloor.
28. What are the 2 types of seismic waves?
How are they different?
Body and surface waves are the two types of seismic waves. Body waves travel through Earth’s
interior while surface waves travel in the layer directly below Earth’s surface.
29. What is deformation?
What is the difference between elastic, brittle, and ductile deformation?
Deformation is the folding, faulting, shearing, and compression or extension of rocks due to
various natural forces. The difference is that the elastic deforms temperature in response to stress and
returns to its original configuration when stress is removed. However, brittle deformation is when the
strength of a rock has been exceeded., it is deformed beyond its ability to respond elastically.
Therefore, it will break or become permanently bent. Ductile deformation is when an object changes
shape without breaking.
30. What is the difference between an anticline, syncline, dome, and basin?
Anticline is an inverted bowl-shaped structure formed when sedimentary rock layers are folded,
producing an arch. Syncline is a bowl-shaped fold in which the youngest rock forms the core and
limbs dip toward the axis. Further, a dome and basin differ as a dome has the shape of an overturned
bowl, while a basin has the shape of an upright bowl.
MATERIAL COVERED ON TEST 2
31. How are weathering, erosion, and mass wasting different?
What conditions increase the rate of
these processes?
Weathering is the physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks at or near Earth's surface.
Mass wasting is the transfer of rock and soil downslope under the influence of gravity. Lastly, Erosion
is the physical removal and transport of material by mobile agents like water, wind, or ice. Rain and
temperature are two conditions that increase the rate of these processes.
32. Describe the two types of weathering.
The two types of weathering are chemical weathering and mechanical weathering. Mechanical
weathering is physically breaking the rock into smaller fragments without changing the chemical
makeup of the minerals within it. Chemical weathering involves the chemical formation of a rock into
one or more new chemical compounds.
33. Define:
aquifer, aquitard, water table, artesian well.
Aquifer: rock or soil through which groundwater moves easily.
Aquitard: impermeable beds that hinder or prevent groundwater movement.
Water Table: the upper level of the saturated zone of groundwater.
Artesian Well: a well in which the water rises above the level where it was initially encountered.
34. Define stream discharge, stream gradient, and natural levee.
Stream Discharge: the quantity (volume) of water in a stream that passes a given period of time.
Stream Gradient: a stream's slope (steepness), generally measured in feet per mile.
5
Natural Levee: an elevated landform that parallels some streams and acts to confine their waters,
except during the flood stage.
35. What river has the largest discharge?
The Amazon River.
36. Define
A.
glacial valley
B.
cirque
C.
arête
D.
horn
E.
fiord
F.
glacial till
G.
moraine,
H.
kettles,
I.
alpine glacier,
J.
continental glacier,
K.
wastage and accumulation.
A.
Glacial valley: A steep-sided, U-shaped valley formed by the erosional forces of a moving glacier.
B.
Cirque: an amphitheater-shaped basin at the head of a glaciated valley produced by frost wedging
and plucking.
C.
Arete: a narrow knifelike ridge separating two adjacent glaciated valleys.
D.
Horn: a pyramid-like peak formed by glacial action in three or more cirques surrounding a
mountain summit.
E.
Fiord: a steep-sided inlet of the sea formed when a glacial trough was partially submerged.
F.
Glacial Till: is the part of glacial drift deposited directly by the glacier. Its content may vary from
clays to mixtures of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders.
G.
Moraine: accumulation of rock debris (till) carried or deposited by a glacier.
H.
Kettles: a depression created when a block of ice lodged in glacial deposits subsequently melted.
I.
Alpine Glacier: a glacier formed among summits and descending a mountain valley.
J:
Continental Glacier: an ice sheet/ glacier covering much of a continent.
K.
Wastage and Accumulation: snow accumulation and ice formation occur in the accumulation zone.
This zone is part of a glacier characterized by snow accumulation and ice formation. Its outer limit is
the snowline. Below the snowline is the zone of wastage. The part of a glacier beyond the zone of
accumulation where all of the snow from the previous winter melts, as does some of the glacial ice.
37. Where are continental glaciers found today?
Today, continental glaciers are only found in extreme polar regions, Antarctica and Greenland.
38. Describe the formation of coal.
Coal is formed from fossilized dead or decayed plants for millions of years and is applied heat and
pressure.
39. Describe the formation of caves.
The dissolution of limestone forms caves. Rainwater picks up carbon dioxide from the air, and as
it percolates through the soil, it becomes a weak acid. This slowly dissolves the limestone along the
joints, bedding planes, and fractures, some of which become enlarged enough to form caves.
40. Describe the layers of soil.
Horizon A, known as topsoil, is organic and mineral matter mixed with humus. “O” is loose and
partly decayed organic matter and topsoil. “E” is little organic matter. Horizon B, known as subsoil, is
in the zone of accumulation and is transported from above. Horizon C, known as bedrock, is partially
altered parent material.
41. Describe the water cycle.
Define evaporation and transpiration.
The water cycle is the unending water circulation through Earth’s spheres through precipitation,
runoff, and evaporation. Evaporation is the process of converting a liquid into vapor. Transpiration is
6
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the process of plants absorbing water through the roots and then giving off water vapor through pores
in their leaves.
42. How much of the Earth’s water is fresh water?
What proportion of Earth’s freshwater is
contained in glaciers?
Earth’s water is less than 3% freshwater, and over 68% of Earth’s freshwater is contained in
glaciers.
43. What are some possible causes of an Ice Age?
Describe Milankovitch Cycles.
When was the
most recent Ice Age, and what percentage of the Earth’s surface was covered by ice at that time?
Changes in Earth's orbit can cause an ice age, the tilt of the Earth’s axis, variations in plate
tectonics, volcanic eruptions, or asteroid impacts. Milankovitch cycles are cylindrical movements
related to Earth’s orbit around the sun. They describe how relatively small changes in Earth’s
movement affect the climate. The most recent ice age occurred about 20,000 years ago, during the last
phase of the Pleistocene epoch, and glaciers covered approximately 8% of Earth's surface.
44. How is sea level related to glaciation?
During periods of glaciation, precipitation becomes trapped in glaciers, preventing it from
replenishing the Earth's oceans. This results in a global, or eustatic, drop in sea level.
45. Describe the formation of Earth’s atmosphere & oceans.
Earth’s atmosphere started with hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water
vapor. In early Earth, a process affecting the atmosphere was outgassing. Outgassing is the process of
releasing gases trapped in the planet’s interior. Through outgassing the gasses, water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, with minor amounts of other gases, were the gases being released. Free
oxygen was not present in the early Earth’s atmosphere. As time passed, the Earth began to cool,
allowing the water vapor to condense, resulting in clouds. From the clouds, torrential rains began to
fill low-lying areas, forming our first oceans.
46. Describe the Permian Extinction.
The Permian extinction occurred about 250 million years ago, in which 70% of land-dwelling
vertebrate species and 90% of all marine organisms were wiped out. It was also the most significant
mass extinction over 500 million years. Each extinction affects other species, causing issues in the
biosphere and other extinctions. However, what was left of these extinctions was that species of
animals and plants were more diverse than ever. The Permian extinction is thought to be caused by
volcanic activity as it coincided with the voluminous eruptions of flood basalts that blanketed roughly
1.6 million square kilometers (624,000 square miles.)
47. Describe the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction.
About 65 million years ago, during the Cretaceous-tertiary extinction, the most likely cause of the
demise of dinosaurs. The extinction is thought to have been caused by a colliding asteroid that would
have hit now Mexico, creating a crater at the top of the Yucatan peninsula. Its impact caused
firestorms, and then the debris in the atmosphere reduced the amount of sunlight, causing global
cooling that inhibited photosynthesis, which caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.
48. What age range is represented by the Precambrian Eon?
The Phanerozoic Eon?
The age range represented by the Precambrian eon is 4.6 billion years ago to 541 million years
ago. The Phanerozoic eon is represented by the age range 541 million years ago to the present.
49. What is an unconformity?
7
A surface between strata layers represents a break in the time record. It results from an interval
when the deposition was interrupted or stopped. Then, the top of the layer was eroded, and deposition
began again, forming more new layers.
50. Describe how the Law of Superposition, Principle of Original Horizontality, CrossCutting
Relationships, Correlation, and Fossil Succession help determine relative age dates.
The law of superposition states that in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is
older than the one above and younger than the one below.
The principle of original horizontality states that layers of sediment are generally deposited in a
horizontal or nearly horizontal position. Thus, if the rock layers observed are flat, they are not
disturbed and still have their original horizontality.
Crosscutting relationships are the idea that geologic features that cut across rocks must have
formed after the rocks they cut through formed.
Correlation establishes the equivalence of rocks of similar age in different areas.
Fossil succession is the principle in which fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and
determinable order so that any period can be recognized by its fossil content.
51. Explain how radiometric age dating is completed.
Which isotopes are most valuable for use in
ancient rocks?
Which isotope is useful for very recent geologic history?
Radiometric age dating works by comparing a parent isotope to a daughter isotope to observe how
much the isotope has decayed. The decay rate is expressed through half-lives; a specific amount of
time is needed for the parent isotope to decay half of the way. Rubidium-87, uranium-238, uranium-
235, potassium-40, and argon-40 are our most valuable isotopes in ancient rocks. For very recent
geologic history, carbon-14 is useful.
52. According to the Geologic Time Scale, what Eon, Era, Period, and Epoch are we currently living
in?
We live in the Phanerozoic eon, the Cenozoic Era, the Quaternary period, and the Holocene epoch.
53. What is the supercontinent cycle?
What supercontinent preceded Pangaea?
The supercontinent cycle is the concept that one supercontinent is dispersed through rifting and
remains many separate components long before reassembling into another supercontinent. Further,
Gondwana preceded Pangaea.
CHAPTERS 15-20
54. What is the cause of surface water waves?
What is the cause of deep water circulation?
Surface water waves- The winds cause waves on the ocean's surface (and on lakes). The wind
transfers some of its energy to the water through friction between the air and water molecules.
Stronger winds (like storm surges) cause larger waves.
Deep circulation of water- driven by a combination of cold temperature and high density related to
high salinity from the formation of sea ice, producing descending high-density waters that flow
southward to equatorial regions.
55. Explain the positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun in relation to the daily tides.
Tides are the pattern of the ocean rising and falling, and it's due to the gravitational pull of the
moon. The distance from the sun also has a slight gravitational pull on the tides.
56. What is the Gulf Stream?
Where is it located?
8
A surface current in the Atlantic Ocean that flows northward along the East Coast of the United
States and is set in motion by the wind. At the water's surface, where the atmosphere and ocean meet,
energy is passed from moving air to the water through friction. The drag exerted by winds blowing
steadily across the ocean causes the surface layer of water to move. Thus, major horizontal
movements of surface waters are closely related to the global prevailing wind pattern.
57. What is the difference between a neap tide and a spring tide?
While both neap and spring tides occur twice each month, a neap tide is the lowest tidal range,
which occurs near the times of the first- and third-quarter phases of the Moon. However, spring tide
is
the highest tidal range, which occurs near the times of the new and full moons.
58. Describe a rip current.
A strong, narrow surface or near-surface current of short duration and high speed flows seaward
through the breaker zone at nearly right angles to the shore. It represents the return to the ocean of
water piled on the shore by incoming waves.
59. What is the current composition of the atmosphere, and what are some of the other
variable components?
Oxygen 21% and nitrogen 78% are the most common gases in our atmosphere. The remaining less
than 1% of the atmosphere is a mixture of gases, including carbon dioxide, argon, helium, methane,
hydrogen krypton, and water vapor.
60. List and describe the layers of the atmosphere.
Troposphere: is the lowermost layer and is generally characterized by a decrease in temperature
with height.
Stratosphere: is the layer of the atmosphere immediately above the troposphere, characterized by
increasing temperatures with height due to the ozone concentration.
Mesosphere: is the layer of the atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere and characterized
by decreasing temperatures with height and is between 30 to 50 miles in altitude.
Thermosphere: is the region of the atmosphere immediately above the mesosphere and has no
well-defined outer limit. It is also characterized by increasing temperatures due to oxygen absorption
of very shortwave solar energy.
61. What is ozone, where is it found, and why is it important?
The ozone is a molecule of oxygen that contains three oxygen atoms and is found in the
stratosphere about 20 to 30 kilometers above the Earth's surface. It is important because the molecules
absorb ultraviolet rays from the sun. Without the ozone layer, those rays would make Earth unlivable,
causing health issues for humans and animals, all while affecting ecosystems.
62. Define the six different types of precipitation.
Rain:
Drops of water that fall from clouds with a diameter of at least 0.5 millimeters (0.02 inch)
are generally produced by nimbostratus or cumulonimbus clouds. When heavy, rain can be highly
variable from one place to another.
Drizzle:
Small uniform drops that fall from stratus clouds, generally for several hours.
Freezing Rain: A coating of ice on objects formed when supercooled rain freezes on contact. Also
called glaze, which can form a thick coating of ice heavy enough to damage trees and power seriously
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lines.
Hail: Occurs as hard, rounded pellets or irregular lumps of ice and is produced in large
cumulonimbus clouds, where ice particles and supercooled water coexist.
Snow: The crystalline nature of snow allows it to assume many shapes, including six-sided
crystals, plates, and needles. Snow is produced in supercooled clouds, where water vapor is deposited
as ice crystals that remain frozen during their descent.
Sleet:
Frozen or semi-frozen rain is formed when raindrops freeze as they pass through a layer of
cold air and consist of clear to translucent ice pellets. Depending on intensity and duration, sleet can
cover the ground much like a thin blanket of snow.
63. Describe the 4 different types of weather fronts.
What symbols are associated with each type?
Warm Front: A front along which a warm air mass overrides a retreating mass of cooler air. Red
semicircles above the line are the symbols associated with this front.
Cold Front:
A front along which a cold air mass thrusts beneath a warmer air mass. Blue triangles
below the line are associated with cold fronts.
Occluded Front:
A front formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front. It marks the beginning
of the end of a middle-latitude cyclone and is associated with the symbol of a purple triangle above
the line.
Stationary Front: A situation in which the surface position of a front does not move; the flow on
either side of such a boundary is nearly parallel to the position of the front. This front is associated
with a combination of red circles and blue triangles.
64. Define air mass and describe the 5 major types of air masses.
An air mass is an immense body of air characterized by a similarity of temperature and moisture
across a given altitude. Maritime polar (mP) air mass is cold, humid air that forms over polar seas,
maritime tropical (mT) is warm, humid air that forms over tropical seas, continental arctic (cA) is very
cold and dry air masses that form over ice covered arctic regions, continental polar (cP) is cold, dry air
that forms over extreme northern and southern air masses, and continental tropical (cT) is warm, dry
air that forms over tropical areas.
65. What is the Coriolis Effect?
The deflective force of Earth’s rotation on all free-moving objects, including the atmosphere and
oceans. Deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
66. Describe cirrus, stratus, and cumulus clouds.
Cirrus: One of three basic cloud forms; also one of the three high cloud types. Cirrus clouds are
thin, delicate ice-crystal clouds often appearing as veil-like patches or thin, wispy fibers.
Stratus: One of three basic cloud forms; also, the name given one of the flow clouds. They are
sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky.
Cumulus: One of three basic cloud forms; also the name given to one of the clouds of vertical
development. Cumulus are billowy individual cloud masses that often have flat bases.
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67. Define air pressure.
How does air pressure change with height and with approaching storms?
How is air pressure related to wind?
Air pressure is the force exerted by the weight of a column of air above a given point and
decreases with height. Storms form as a response to changes in air temperature. As warm air rises over
cold air, it results in a drop in air pressure. When a low air pressure system forms, the wind will pick
up, and precipitation will form. Whereas a high-pressure system usually leads to rather calm weather.
The wind is air pressure converted into movement of air. When air slows down, its pressure
increases.
68. List and describe the different types of weather fronts.
Cold front- cold air mass pushes a warm air mass out of the way; the warm air mass gets pushed
upward quickly by cumulonimbus clouds. This type of front is associated with thunderstorms and
heavy precipitation.
Warm front- a warm air mass pushes a cold air mass out of the way; the warm air will slowly rise as it
pushes the cold air mass out of the way - forming stratus clouds. This type of front is associated with
light precipitation.
Occulted front- a faster moving cold air mass overtakes a slower moving warm air mass and forces the
warm air up; the cold air mass then continues to advance until it meets a cold air mass that is warmer
than itself and forces that air to rise, too; this type of front is associated with cold temperatures and
large amounts, of precipitation.
Stationary front- a cold air mass meets a warm air mass; neither air mass pushes the other one out of
the way; they are stagnant; a little warm air will rise, forming clouds. This type of front is associated
with drizzle or light precipitation.
69. Define dew point and relative humidity.
Dew point:
The temperature to which air must be cooled to reach saturation, also called dew-point
temperature.
Relative Humidity: The air’s water-vapor content ratio to its water-vapor capacity.
70. What are some differences between a hurricane, tropical depression, and a tropical storm?
A hurricane is a tropical cyclone storm with intense pressure centers forming over tropical oceans
with winds over 119 kilometers (74 mph). Tropical depressions are tropical cyclone storms with
maximum winds that do not exceed 61 kilometers (38 mph). In contrast, tropical storms are tropical
cyclones with top wind speeds between 61 and 119 kilometers (38 and 74 mph).
71. Define monsoon.
A monsoon is a seasonal reversal of wind direction associated with large continents, especially
Asia. In winter, the wind blows from land to sea; in summer, sea to land.
72. What are the four basic processes that lift air?
Orographic Lifting: Occurs when elevated terrain, such as a mountain range, acts as a barrier to
airflow. The air cools adiabatically, and clouds and precipitation may result.
Localized Convective Lifting:
Unequal surface heating that causes localized pockets of air
(thermals) to rise because of their buoyancy. They are also called simply convective lifting.
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Frontal Lifting: Colder, denser air acts as a barrier over which warmer, less dense air is forced to
rise, also called frontal wedging.
Convergence Lifting: The condition that exists when the distribution of winds in a given area
results in a net horizontal inflow of air into the area. Because convergence at lower levels is associated
with an upward movement of air, areas of convergent winds are regions favorable to cloud formation
and precipitation.
73. What is the difference between advection fog and radiation fog?
Advection fog is formed when warmer air, moist air, is blown over a cool surface. Radiation fog
forms overnight, resulting from radiation heat loss by Earth.
74. Describe how a tornado is formed.
A tornado is formed when wind traveling in opposite directions causes a layer of air in the middle
to rotate. The rotating layer of air changes from a horizontal to a vertical position due to strong
updrafts that join the rotational pattern. The rotating air column moves to the bottom of the
cumulonimbus cloud and forms a funnel cloud. When the cloud touches the ground, it is called a
tornado.
75. Describe how a hurricane is formed.
A hurricane is formed when warm, moist air is forced to rise. The air spirals up to cool and
condense. These spirals are the energy powering the storm. The cold air then sinks through the center
to form the eye of the hurricane. When the storm reaches the shore, it loses heat energy and digresses.
76. What is El Nino? What is La Nina?
El Nino is the name given to the periodic warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. A
major El Nino episode can cause extreme weather in many parts of the world. La Nina is an episode of
strong trade winds and unusually low sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific.
Simply, it is the opposite of El Nino.
77. Describe 3 ways to stabilize a shoreline.
Hard stabilization, beach nourishment, and relocation are three ways to stabilize a shoreline. Hard
stabilization are structures built to protect coastlines from the effects of erosion. This includes jetties, a
pair of walkways built from the land into the water, similar to a walkway. It also includes groin
barriers built at a right angle to the beach to trap sand moving parallel to the shore. Another is
breakwaters and Seawalls, structures built parallel to the shoreline.
Another approach is beach nourishment when large quantities of sand are added to the beach.
Lastly, relocation is when storm-damaged buildings are relocated to another place, and nature is
allowed to reclaim the damaged area.
78. List & describe the 5 principles of Koppen climate groups.
Compare and contrast the climate
conditions within tropical rainforest, savannah, desert, steppe, tundra, ice cap, and highland
climates.
A.
Humid tropical: Winterless climates, all months have a mean temperature above 18°C (64°F).
B.
Dry: In climates where evaporation exceeds precipitation, there is a constant water deficiency.
C.
Humid middle-latitude: mild winters. The average temperature of the coldest month is below 18°C
(64°F) but above -3°C (27°F).
D.
Humid middle-latitude, severe winters. The average temperature of the coldest month is below
-3°C (27°F), and the warmest monthly mean exceeds 10 °C (50°F).
E.
Polar: Summerless climates, the average temperature of the warmest month is below ten °C (50°F).
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Rainforest: (tropical wet) high temp year-round rainfall.
Savannah: (tropical dry), tropical drought-resistant trees, grassland, periods of rain and drought.
Dessert: is the driest of dry climates.
Steppe: A marginal and more humid variant of the desert that separates it from bordering humid
climates. They are also known as semiarid.
Tundra: A climate found almost exclusively in the Northern Hemisphere or at high altitudes in many
mountainous regions. A treeless climatic realm of sedges, grasses, mosses, and lichens that is
dominated by a long, bitterly cold winter.
Ice-cap: A climate having no monthly means above freezing and supports no vegetative cover except
in a few scattered high mountain areas. This climate, with its perpetual ice and snow, is confined
largely to the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica.
Highland climate: a complex pattern of climate conditions associated with mountains. Highland
climates are characterized by large differences that occur over short distances.
79. Explain the differences (in terms of sunlight) between the Summer Solstice, Winter Solstice,
Autumnal Equinox, and Spring Equinox.
What date does each occur in the N & S hemispheres?
Summer Solstice: The day of the year with the longest hours of daylight, marking the beginning of
summer, occurs when one of the Earth’s poles has its maximum tilt toward the sun. In the Northern
Hemisphere, it occurs on June 21 or June 22. In the Southern Hemisphere, summer solstice occurs on
December 22.
Winter Solstice: The day of the year with the least hours of daylight, marking the beginning of winter.
It occurs on December 21 or December 22 in the Southern Hemisphere. While in the Northern
Hemisphere, it occurs on June 21.
Autumnal Equinox: This is when day and nighttime hours are twelve hours long. It occurs on
September 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and March 21 or 22 in the Southern Hemisphere.
Spring Equinox: This is an equinox on the Earth when the subsolar point appears to leave the
Southern
Hemisphere and cross the celestial equator heading northward as seen from Earth. Occurring on
March 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and September 22 in the Southern Hemisphere.
80. Why does the Earth have different seasons?
The Earth has different seasons because its axis is tilted to 23.5 degrees. When the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, the sun is higher in the sky. Therefore, the sunlight is stronger
and more concentrated. However, when the Northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, the light
is at a low angle and weaker. When the axis is neutral, we have 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of
darkness, an equinox.
81. Describe the Greenhouse Effect.
The greenhouse effect is the process by which the Earth's atmosphere traps heat for a period of
time and keeps the temperature at a level that can sustain life. Thus, it controls the Earth's temperature.
82. How does the melting of sea ice affect climate?
The melting of sea ice affects climate but takes away from the ice-albedo effect. This effect is how
ice and snow reflect solar radiation, which helps to keep the Earth cool. Therefore, the less snow and
sea ice, the less
83. What is the difference between weather and climate?
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Climate is the average, year after year, temperature, precipitation, winds, and clouds in an area.
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time.
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