Global Development Exam

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1023

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Apr 3, 2024

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Name: Clayton Melbourne Course and section numbers: CGS 1023F Instructor: Dr. Matthew McBurney Exam date/time: December 07 – December 11 (by 11:55 pm) 1

Short Answer Questions Theory/Concept #1 – Poverty Throughout the duration of our course, we talked about what poverty is, its subtopics, and some things that would be classified as a part of poverty that have previously or are still ongoing in the real world. From the information I collected from this course, I crafted a specific general definition of poverty: not having enough money to meet basic needs, including food, clothing and shelter. I used multiple essential pieces of information, elements and materials to craft this definition, one of them being the terms absolute and relative poverty, which we discussed earlier in the year. According to the course readings, a source I found through our lectures, the term absolute poverty is a fixed standard of what households should count on to meet their basic needs. According to the course readings, relative poverty means that a particular family does not have as much money or resources as most other people in their community. Another piece of information mentioned previously in class lectures was the topic of the four dimensions of poverty. The first of the four dimensions of poverty is materiality, which are the "things" that the poor person lacks, the subject's perceptions of their condition, meaning only when someone perceives the lack of materiality do they acquire the particular meaning attached to the world poverty, how others view the poor, as in terms of the views of the poor lead to 2 reactions, as well as SPIMES affecting various perceptions of poverty. Arturo Escobar was one of the most influential theorists/authors we discussed throughout the course. Arturo Escobar has made several contributions and theories within the field and topic of poverty, one of them being that the essential trait of the third world was its poverty and that the 2

solution was economic growth and development, which became self-evident, necessary and universal truths. He also stated that rich countries were believed to have the financial and technological capacity to secure progress worldwide. Another theorist and philosopher we discussed in our lectures was Majid Rahnema, who also had multiple theories about poverty. He believes that poverty is not just a lack of material resources but also a result of social and cultural factors. Rahnema also argues that poverty is not an inherent condition but rather a consequence of socioeconomic systems and unequal power dynamics. Theorists of poverty often look to develop the earth into a better and more even place; by doing that, they look at the human development index (HDI) and an alternative form of measurement, including the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index, which helps measure how an individual will eventually end up in life. This method, compiled annually by the UNDP, includes multiple indicators, which are the health/life expectancy, starting from the life expectancy at birth and the education levels, measured in the average years of schooling and expected years of teaching, followed by the standard of living. The development consists of more than improvements in the well- being of citizens; it is even broadly defined and conveys something about the capacity of economic, political, and social systems. Bibliography ● Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Poverty.” Encyclopedia Britannica . November 19, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/poverty . ● Habitat for Humanity UK. "Exploring the Difference Between Relative and Absolute Poverty." Habitat for Humanity UK Blog . September 2018. https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2018/09/relative-absolute-poverty/ . ● Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). "Dimensions of Poverty." Sida Publications , (2019). https://www.cdn.sida.se/publications/files/sida62275en-dimensions-of- poverty.pdf . 3

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Theory/Concept #2 – Modernization Theory Throughout our class lectures, I’ve formulated a deep and well-thought-out meaning behind the Modernization Theory. With my understanding from R.N. Gwynne, which was cited in the lectures, I understand that this theory is based on classical and neo-classical economic theories. (R.N. Gwynne 2009, 125-26). These theories include manufacturing more significant increases in productivity than agriculture, expansion of markets, labour specialization, technological change becoming vital to productivity and demand, and the free trade and free market is necessary. The modernization theory is also very concerned with economic growth (GDP). Along with the theory come several assumptions that several people have about it. The most notable assumptions that were included were the universal values, which is when the modernization theorists believe that 'modern values' technologies and institutions are required for societies to develop and advance, as well as the eurocentric assumption, which is when people think that all countries should copy Europe and the US. Other assumptions also include the homogenization theory, which is the familiar concept of traditional societies that paints the developing world as the same, and finally, the development as a linear process, which is when the modernization theory is a description and explanation of the process of transformation from traditional or underdeveloped societies to modern developed societies. The modernization theory in today’s world is often connected with several other terms. According to John Brohman of Simon Fraser University, the term neoliberalism, rooted in classical liberalism and with people having the right to live lids free from government intervention, is one of 4

them. Brohman also states that economic liberalism increases the private sector's role in the economy and society, including four factors: privatization, deregulation, free trade, fiscal austerity, and reduced small governments. Modernization theory is also commonly confused with other theories. This dependency theory had significant influence, specifically from a “structuralist” perspective and was labelled as the “development of undevelopment.” according to Andre Gunder Frank. The dependency theory is an idea that explains how poorer or less developed countries rely on rich or the most developed countries for things like economic stability and support or military support. This theory commonly occurred worldwide and was experienced by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (UNECLA) in the 1940s and 50s. I found that these terms connected to the multiple complex criticisms we discussed in class about this theory. These include that it could be too Eurocentric, neglect the power of dynamics, and lead to linear development. Modernization theorists tend to study the conditions that are needed for economic growth to occur. In this view, traditional society perpetuates economic stagnation. It deprives people of their capacity to accumulate wealth, promotes a dualistic view of the world and imposes a "silver burst." It is also known that Westernization was considered a desirable and inevitable process for the rest of the world. A real-life example of this would be Walt Rostow and his five stages of economic growth, which include a traditional society, the agricultural economy of mainly subsistence farming, little of which is traded but bartered, primitive technology, hierarchical society, and limited capital stock and low quality, resulting in very low labour productivity and little surplus left to sell in domestic and overseas markets. 5

Bibliography ● R.N. Gwynne. "Modernization Theory" International Encyclopedia of Human Geography , 123-145. Elsevier, (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00108-5 . ● Brohman, John. "Universalism, Eurocentrism, and Ideological Bias in Development Studies: From Modernization to Neoliberalism." Third World Quarterly 16 , no. 1 (March 1995): 121–157. https://doi.org/0143-6597/95/010121 . ● Nohlen, Dieter. "Modernization and Dependence." Intereconomics, 15 (1980): 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02928583 . ● Munro, A. "Dependency theory." Encyclopedia Britannica , November 30, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/dependency-theory . ● Grosfoguel, Ramon. "Developmentalism, Modernity, and Dependency Theory in Latin America." Nepantla: Views from South 1, no. 2 (2000): 347-374. muse.jhu.edu/article/23893 . ● Frank, Andre Gunder. “The Development of Underdevelopment.” Monthly Review . September 1966, https://ares.lib.uwo.ca/ares/ares.dll?Action=10&Type=10&Value=141298 6

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Essay Question Answer Compare and contrast AT LEAST 2 theories discussed in class. Introduction When discussing globalization and global development, multiple complex and unique ideas travel freely in people's minds. Still, two important concepts that I find extremely interesting and essential to discuss are ‘Development as Freedom’ and gender and women within the development, which offer distinctive perspectives on the world and its development. The concepts of "development of freedom" and "gender development" are also integral components of human progress, which in turn, help up reflect the multifaceted nature of societal evolution. This essay aims to compare and contrast these two dimensions, exploring their intersections and divergences within the broader context of human development as well as exploring their implications in the globalized world. While discussing this topic, it is also essential to rethink gender and its empowerment. Body Paragraph #1 — Gender/Women in/and Development The topic of gender, specifically women in development, is one of the most critical and well- known issues spread throughout the world, which has been passed on from generation to generation for several decades. Although some may ask, “Why do we need to look at women, or gender, as their own category?” it would be because women are disproportionally affected by other forms of development in the world, as the world has increasingly prioritized this issue. Women in development specifically tended to call for equality that arose out of the liberal feminist movement and questioned existing theories of development by contesting that economic development had identical impacts on men and women. This was fueled by publications of Ester Boserup, who highlighted how official 7

statistics ignored and underestimated the value of work performed by women and called for programs for education and skills acquisition to advance the position of women and to link women's skills. There are several concepts and theoretical concepts that may have resulted in. Still, the topic of the demographic change within gender, more specifically, they would have started with the demographic transition theory. Demographic changes can refer to changes over time in a population’s growth or territorial distribution or to changes in the significant components of population growth. The background of gender and women in development is rooted in the recognition of the unequal power dynamics and disparities that exist between men and women in society. Historically, development efforts primarily focused on economic growth and infrastructure without considering the specific needs and roles of women. However, in the 1970s, scholars and activists began to critique this approach and argue for the inclusion of gender perspectives in development. This led to the emergence of the field of gender and development (GAD), which aimed to address the gender inequalities and promote women's empowerment within development processes. Body Paragraph #2 — ‘Development as Freedom’ Amartya Kumar Sen, the author of the book Development as Freedom, identified several biases, specifically against women, as a significant obstacle to growth in developing countries. This bias deprives women of fundamental rights in areas such as political participation and family planning. It also harms economic development by failing to tap into the productive capacity of women by excluding them from education and the workforce. Sen argues that if they begin and continue empowering women, they wouldn’t only be better off, but their communities would become safer and more prosperous. He also argues that the bias against women has resulted in a troubling trend that 8

highlights the harms of misogyny on public health and development. According to Des Gasper and Irene van Staveren of Feminist Economics, in chapter 8 of “Development as Freedom,” Sen argues for gender policies that focus on women’s capability and agency rather than on women’s disadvantaged levels of functioning. Amartya Kumar Sen also included a suggestion that the framework of the development of freedom’ should act as a foundational and universal principle for all peoples to better facilitate the aspirations of the multifaceted forms of social contestation, protest and resistance against inequality – from race and gender for equal freedoms, to de-colonial and popular uprisings for local and global social justice. Sen’s work has also influenced the theoretical study of gender and development, poverty, famine, social justice and democracy. Sen has also helped to underpin the rise of new development indicators, such as the Human Development Index, the Human Poverty Index and the Gender Development Index. Sen has also sharply illustrated the critical power of this capability approach to human development when he demonstrates that there are around 60 – 100 million missing women in the world due to systematic gender discrimination, resulting in severe capability deprivation for women. In elaborating upon his ideas for promoting human and social well-being, which culminated in the text “Development as Freedom,” Sen is also keen to establish what he considers to be foundational analytical distinctions in how we may approach an understanding of well-being through valuing individual agency. Body Paragraph #3 — Compare and Contrast Throughout my research, I found out that both theories share a common interest in challenging and transforming existing power structures that set back and delay human development. They also both recognize the importance of addressing social inequalities. The contrasting part 9

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between these two terms is that “development as Freedom” focuses more on individual freedoms and capabilities as the key indicators of development, and it goes beyond the economic indicators to consider political, social, and cultural sovereignty. On the other hand, gender/women in development primarily focuses on gender roles, relations, and inequalities in development processes. Even though “Development as Freedom” occasionally discusses these topics, gender/women in development analyze them from a more specific point of view. Another primary focus of gender/women in development research is addressing the particular challenges and opportunities women face in the context of development. While the development of freedom and gender development may appear distinct, they are intricately connected within the broader tapestry of societal progress. The expansion of freedom often correlates with advancements in gender equality, as societies that champion individual liberties are more likely to challenge traditional gender norms and empower marginalized groups. Political freedoms, such as the right to vote and participate in governance, have been pivotal in advancing gender equality. For example, the suffragette movements of the 19th and 20th centuries were instrumental in securing voting rights for women in many countries. The recognition of gender-based violence as a violation of human rights further underscores the intersectionality of freedom and gender, emphasizing the need for legal frameworks that protect individuals from discrimination and violence. Socio-economic freedom is equally integral to gender development. Access to education and economic opportunities is a crucial driver of gender equality, enabling women to break free from traditional roles and contribute meaningfully to society. Initiatives aimed at closing the gender pay 10

gap, providing maternity and paternity leave, and challenging discriminatory workplace practices contribute to a more inclusive and equitable socio-economic landscape. Conclusion In conclusion, in the novel ‘Development of Freedom’ and the term utilized several times in class lectures, gender within development has multiple connected aspects in numerous ways, specifically in societal progress. The pursuit of individual liberties and the dismantling of gender-based inequalities are complementary endeavours, each reinforcing the other. As societies strive for greater freedom, it is imperative to recognize the importance of concurrently advancing gender equality to ensure that progress is inclusive and benefits all community members. By understanding and addressing the intersections between these two dimensions, societies can foster a more just, equitable, and accessible world for everyone. Bibliography ● Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Decolonization". Encyclopedia Britannica , 27 Oct. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/decolonization . ● Taylor & Francis Group, The Companion to Development Studies , edited by Vandana Desai, and Rob Potter, Taylor & Francis Group, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central , https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/west/detail.action?docID=1656758 . 11

Global Development Exam

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