Geography Exam Preparation: Key Concepts and Technologies

The Equator is the line of the Parallel The shape of the earth mainly used in GIS and cartography is Ellipsoid Which of the following is not one of the 6 components of a geographic information system? budget A State Plane Coordinate System is defined by: state government What was John Snow’s claim to fame? Showed that Cholera was transmitted through drinking water using spatial analysis The LandSat and GOES satellites are different in a number of ways including the following: Landsat has a near-polar orbit while GOES is not, LandSat has a finer spatial resolution The technology and method that uses pulsing laser light to measure the elevation values of an airplane or satellite is: LiDAR How many satellites need to be visible from your GPS receiver in order to identify a robust, fixed location (and account for clock errors)? Four Rayleigh Scattering occurs when: particles are very small compared to the wavelengths of radiation he four types of resolution associated with sensor devices in remote sensing (and discussed in class) are: Spatial, Spectral, Radiometric, Temporal GPS is one type of Global Navigation Satellite System. What are three others? GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou Which of the following is a fundamental concept of maps and geography? Space and Scale Who created the first world map with lines of latitude and longitude on it? Ptolemy What is the graticule? The flattening of the ellipsoid. The most accurate way to describe the shape of the earth is as a: Geoid Which of the following is a representative fraction? 1/1000

Which of the following is the correct latitude/longitude for Sydney, Australia? 34’ 0” S, 151’ 0” E With projected coordinates, - Locations are defined by an x, y coordinate on a grid - (b) All systems are based on angular units referenced to a specific ellipsoid or spheroid (c) A and B Which of the following are characteristics of a bad map? - Too much information - Inaccurate information - Poor symbol choice - Ugly The content of the human mind can be divided into these four hierarchical levels: Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom True: - Maps show spatial relationships between features or phenomena on the Earth’s surface - On a choropleth map, areas are shaded in proportion to the data being displayed - When animals perform dead reckoning, it is called path integration False: - Converting between hard copy and cognitive maps is an easy, well-understood process. - hard process - The equator is a meridian.- A meridian is a line of longitude that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole, passing through the poles - the scale of a map is the ratio between compass distances and Earth distances - The scale of a map represents the relationship between the distances on the map and the actual distances on the Earth's surface - The most accurate GPS fixes are attained when all satellites are very close to the horizon- The most accurate GPS fixes are typically attained when the GPS receiver has a clear line of sight to as many GPS satellites as possible, including those that are relatively high in the sky - GPS receivers use triangulation to determine a location- trilateration - Mie scattering causes the blue sky and red sunsets- both due to ray -

Space: concept, dimensions - Space (and scale) is a fundamental concept in mapping - x, y, z and t. - 2) Maps: concept, types of maps - A map is the representation of features or phenomena that occur on or near the surface of the earth - Show spatial relationships between features. - Hard, digital and mental copy - Hard to change from mental to anything else 3) Geospatial technologies: concepts - Any information system that collects, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information - GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing, Surveying, Spatial statistics - Esri - GIS for Government and Public Services - Typical GIS applications: - Three case studies - GIS for Business and Service Planning - 2. Coordinates 1) Shapes of the Earth: sphere, geoid, ellipsoid, topography - Geoid: Most accurate model: slightly irregular or lumpy due to density variations in the earth's crust. - Ellipsoid: Formed by rotating an ellipse about its minor (shorter) axis - Sphere: Simple but inaccurate model 2) Datum: concept (horizontal and vertical), important datums (NAD, WGS84) - A datum defines a starting point for measurement - Horizontal datum: known point on the earth’s surface used for measuring coordinates, distances and directions - vertical datum: known point on the earth’s surface used for measuring heights

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- - REGIONAL HORIZONTAL DATUMS - GLOBAL DATUMS - Defining the locations of features and phenomena on the earth’s surface 3) Geographic coordinate system: geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude), graticule, conversion between decimal degrees (DD) and DMS (degrees, minutes, seconds) - LATITUDE - LONGITUDE -

- 4) Map projections: concept, why, projected coordinates (cartesian coordinates and cartesian coordinate system), some coordinate systems (UTM, State Plane Coordinate System, Web Mercator) - Geographic space (curved) to Cartesian space (flat) - What is a map projection? - WHY DO WE NEED map projections? - Common projections: Mercator, Albers, Lambert, - COMMON CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM: Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), State plane coordinate system 3. Navigation 1) Concept - a set of skills that involve the determination of position, direction and size (length, area) - All humans and animals use navigation skills to get from point A to point B 2) Scale: concept (spatial extent vs map scale), expression (scale bar, fraction, text), level of detail - Scale is another fundamental concept of maps and geospatial technologies - Map scale - Calculating - expressed in many different way -

- 3) Distance: measuring distance from maps, Euclidean distance, distance in the space (horizontal and vertical distances) - 4) Direction: Azimuth (bearing), cardinal direction - measured in degrees: N = 0o , E = 90o , S = 180o , W = 270o , almost N = 359o 5) Area: basic idea of calculating the area of irregular shapes - SOH CAH TOA 6) Wayfinding: concept - Do you primarily use landmarks or cardinal directions to find routes? - • Landmark directions: “turn left at the bank” - • Cardinal directions: “turn north on Front Street” - Some people use both: “turn north at the bank” 36 4. Navigation Systems 1) Concept: GNSS - United States’ Global Positioning System (GPS) - Russia's GLONASS - European Union's Galileo - China’s BeiDou 2) GPS: concept, selective availability, trilateration, segments (space, control, user), limitations (atmospheric delays, multipath, satellite geometry) - A system that uses satellites to provide geographic positioning - ● small electronic receivers determine their longitude, latitude, and elevation using radio signals transmitted from satellites - HISTORY - SELECTIVE AVAILABILITY: adds intentional, time varying errors of up to 100 meters to the publicly available navigation signals. - HOW GPS WORKS - TRILATERATION: A method of determining relative positions using the geometry of triangles - GPS SEGMENTS: Space, control and user - Application: Navigation, Autonomous vehicles, Tracking, Recreational, Location based social media, Mapping, Accurate time

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- GPS LIMITATIONS: Atmospheric Delays, Multipath error, Satellite Geometry, Jammers 3) Dead reckoning: legs, trigonometry - A simple, ancient method of planning and tracking the movements needed to navigate - • trips are divided into legs - animal dead reckoning is called path integration ants, rodents & geese continuously, track locations relative to a starting point - 4) Other systems and technologies: basic understanding of INS, GLONASS, Galileo, Beidou - -

5. Remote Sensing 1) Definition - The measurement of physical, chemical, and biological properties of objects without direct contact 2) EM spectrum: wavelengths (visible, NIR) - - Visible light (wavelength) - ● The light, which our eyes can detect. - ● A range from 0.4 to 0.7μm. - ● The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet. - 1 mm (millimeter) =1,000 μm (micrometer) - - Infrared (IR) light (wavelength) - ● A range from 0.7 to 100 μm. - ● Reflected IR ≈ 0.7 to 3.0 μm. Solar-generated EMR that has been reflected from an object. - ● Thermal IR ≈ 3.0 to 100 μm. EMR that is emitted from the Earth’s surface in the form of heat (Temperature of object). 3) Interaction with the atmosphere: scattering (Rayleigh, Mie, Non ‐ selective), absorption (atmospheric windows) - RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

- MIE SCATTERING - NON-SELECTIVE SCATTERING - Absorption 4) Interaction with the targets: absorption, transmission, reflection, spectral reflectance - Absorption - Transmission - Reflection - Spectral reflectance = reflected light/ incident energy 5) Passive and active remote sensing: basic understanding - + LiDar 6) Remote sensing systems: orbits, satellites, resolution (spatial, spectral, radiometric, temporal) - Platforms - Four Types of Resolution in Remote Sensing: Spatial, Spectral, Radiometric, Temporal 7) Image analysis: visual interpretation (shape, color, size, texture, association, pattern, shadow) - Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite - ANALYSIS - Elements: shape tone, size, texture, association/site, pattern, shadow - Remote Sensing Applications ( case studies) 6. Geographic Information System 1) Definition, 6 components, major software (ArcGIS, QGIS, etc.), GIScience (definition), Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS) - Geographic Information Systems (GIS), is a computer- based system to aid in the collection, maintenance, storage, analysis, output, and distribution of geographic information. - The 6 components of a GIS • Data: digital geographic information. • Hardware: PC, server, cloud. • Software: general purpose and application systems. • Network: local machine, intranet, Internet. • People: implement, maintain, and operate a GIS • Procedures: agreements, standards, etc.. - GIScience studies the fundamental issues arising from the creation, handling, storage, and use of geographic information - Data collection - Geodatabases - Computer Cartography

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- Spatial Analysis - Spatial Statistics - Big Data & Mobility - SPATIAL DATA SCIENCE - The industry of GIS - Esri: Environmental Systems Research Institute - In the 1960s Roger Tomlinson initiated, planned, and directed the development of the Canadian Geographic System (CGIS), which is the roots of Geographic Information Systems. CGIS was unique because it adopted a layer approach system to map handling. 7. Cartography 1) Concept: cartography, communication process - “The art, science, and technology of making maps” (International Cartographic Association) - Cartography is a process of communication - 2) History of cartography: key figures and maps, from tool ‐ based to computer ‐ based cartography. - earliest known map: 9ft wall painting of a town plan dated 6100-6300BC - Key figure in ancient cartography: Claudius Ptolemy - Wrote a book titled “Geography” and created first world map using latitude and longitude around 150AD, shown above - - A key figure in cartography: Gerardus Mercator - • Created a world map in 1569 that used his Mercator projection - • constant bearing sailing courses on the sphere (rhumb lines) are mapped to straight lines on the map, greatly improving the accuracy of navigation

- - - The Minard Map created in 1869 showing Napoleon’s invasion and retreat from Russia - • notable for its 2D representation of 6 types of data: 1) the number of Napoleon's troops 2)distance 3)temperature 4)latitude and longitude 5)direction of travel and 6)location relative to specific dates - • Consider by some to be the best statistical map every - 3) Types of maps: topographic, thematic (dot density, choropleth, proportional symbol, flow, cartogram) - 3.2 Thematic maps - Show the location and property about features - ○ points, polygons, and lines are ways to represent location - ○ colors, sizes, etc. represent properties - - 3.2.1 Dot Density map - o Using polygons to represent location. - o 1 dot represents a certain value of the property. - o higher density of points represents a greater value in an area - - 3.2.2 Choropleth map - o Using polygons to represent location. - o areas are shaded in proportion to the property. - o Greek basis: Choro = area, pleth = multiply. - - 3.2.3 Proportional Symbol Maps - o use circles, squares, spheres, cubes, etc. to represent location. - o the size is proportion to the magnitude of the property - - 3.2.4 Flow map - o Use lines to represent the location. - o Use line thickness or color to represent the property. - o Arrows may be used to show the direction of flows - - 3.2.5 Cartogram

4) Map elements: 9 1) Title 2) Map body 3) Legend 4) Direction / North Arrow 5) Scale 6) Author 7) Data Source 8) Projection 9) Inset Map (optional) 5) Map critique: what make a good or bad map? • To convey spatial information accurately, efficiently and painlessly as possible. • A user should be able to look at a good map and instantaneously understand its meaning. • Keys: o color contrast: strong contrast. o size contrast: 1) larger size for a more important element, 2) easier to distinguish different sizes. o position: important elements at center. o empty space: harmony and equilibrium. o and, the art!! Bad map - information that is difficult to interpret - • Too much information - • Poor symbol choice - • Inaccurate or biased information - • A map that is just ugly - Dead reckoning is used in: A. GPS B. Inertial Navigation System C. GLONASS

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Answer: 23 The cloud on a remotely sensed image is due to: A. Mie scattering B. Transmission C. Rayleigh scattering D. Non-selective scattering Answer: On the Near Infrared (NIR) band of a Landsat image, which object on the ground has the lowest spectral reflectance? A . Dry soil B. Snow C. Clear water D. Vegetation

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