ALL WEEKS LO
docx
keyboard_arrow_up
School
University of British Columbia *
*We aren’t endorsed by this school
Course
111
Subject
Geography
Date
Oct 30, 2023
Type
docx
Pages
40
Uploaded by UltraPencil9214
1.
Distinguish between Climate and Weather.
Climate
Weather
1.
It is the study of the average weather condition observed over a long period of
time.
2.
It is a long-term phenomenon.
3.
Does not change frequently.
4.
It is defined for a larger area like a state or country.
1.
It is the study of atmospheric conditions for a short period of time.
2.
It is a short-term phenomenon.
3.
Changes frequently.
4.
It depends on a smaller area like a district or state. 2.
Predict the consequences of climate change.
Global warming and rising temperatures
More extreme weather events.
Melting of ice glaciers
Rising sea levels.
Disruption in the food chain
Habitat loss
Mismatches in the timing of life events and negative impact on animal migration
Declining air quality.
Ocean acidification and increase in the ocean salinity 3.
Explain the relationship between the carbon cycle and photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process that produces organic molecules from the sun's energy, carbon dioxide, and water. (light energy into chemical energy)
Sunlight + CO2 + H2O -> Glucose + O2
The carbon cycle is a process that recycles carbon atoms through the biosphere.
4.
Describe the importance of photosynthesis to life on Earth.
Photosynthesis is an important component of the carbon cycle and is the main way plants generate their own energy supply. It is important to live on Earth as it is a major source of oxygen in the atmosphere which is required by most organisms to survive.
5.
Explain phenology using examples of a number of different organisms (plants, birds, etc).
Phenology is the study of how seasonal timings affect the biological events of an organism.
Example 1: the blossoming of flowers comes after winter is over and spring starts
Example 2: when birds start to first migrate
Example 3: when birds lay their eggs 6.
Apply an appropriate species name to an organism. Identify the genus and specific epithet.
Genus always CAPS, species/specific epithet is always small
Both typed in italics or written with underline
Homo Sapiens
Genus: Homo
Specific epithet: Sapiens
WEEK 3
7.
Describe the defining features of a cell.
Plasma membrane
: phospholipid bilayer acts as a selective, semi-permeable barrier.
Has a hydrophobic lipid core (water-repelling core which protects the inner contents of a cell)
Cytoplasm
: fluid substance containing molecules and ions surrounded by plasma membranes.
DNA
: Hereditary material made of nucleic acid and packaged into chromosomes.
8.
Compare and contrast the basic features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic “before nucleus”
Eukaryotic “true nucleus”
No membrane-bound nucleus.
has unicellular
DNA has loosely bunched in a nucleoid
Bacteria and archaea domains.
Membrane-bound nucleus.
Can be both unicellular& multicellular
Eukarya domain.
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane made of a phospholipid bilayer, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes 9.
Describe the general features of eukaryotic cells.
Presence of membrane-bound organelles.
Plasma membrane made of a phospholipid bilayer (embedded with proteins)
1.
Transport proteins
2.
Receptor proteins
3.
Recognition proteins
4.
Cell adhesion proteins
5.
Enzyme
Mitochondria as the powerhouse of the cell.
Nucleus
1.
Nuclear envelope
2.
Chromatin (compact form of a chromosome)
3.
Nucleolus (produce and assemble ribosomes)
Endoplasmic reticulum -> synthesis & modification of proteins 1.
Rough ER - studded with ribosomes
2.
Smooth ER - lacks ribosomes
10.
Describe the endomembrane system.
Series of internal membranes that interconnect through vesicles (sacs).
Includes
1.
Nuclear envelope
2.
Endoplasmic reticulum -> it is a network of flattened sacs & tubes which modify and synthesize proteins (Rough ER synthesizes proteins and Smooth ER assembles proteins and breaks down lipids and carbohydrates)
3.
Golgi -> flattened sacs which are responsible for the processing and the packaging of proteins and lipids 4.
Lysosomes -> bud from the Golgi membranes and contain enzymes that break down damaged organelles 5.
Vacuoles -> used for transportation 6.
Plasma Membrane
11.
Distinguish between plastids and mitochondria.
Plastids
Mitochondria
Similar to mitochondria because they help in the production and storage of plant food
(glucose). However, they are only found in
plants and are pigmented.
Only found in plant cells.
Powerhouse of the cell, responsible for the production of ATP in the cell, used for aerobic respiration.
Found in all eukaryotic cells.
12.
Describe the theory of endosymbiosis and the evidence that supports it.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
The theory of endosymbiosis is a theory which states that organelles like mitochondria and plastids evolved from prokaryotic cells through a symbiotic relationship.
Explains the evolution of-
Mitochondria from the symbiotic event with aerobic bacteria.
Chloroplast from a symbiotic event with photosynthetic bacteria.
Evidence: Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, and this DNA is arranged in a similar manner to the DNA found in bacteria. Their size is also similar to the size of bacteria WEEK 4
1.
Define: cell type, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism. Be able to identify these in both plants and animals.
Cell: Cells are the basic fundamental unit of life.
Tissue: Cells with similar structures and functions are organized into tissues
.
Organ: Different tissues are assembled in various ways to produce different organs.
Organ system: Organs are assembled in distinct ways to form an organ system.
Organism: Different tissues are assembled in distinct ways (body plans) in different organisms.
2.
Explain convergence and divergence and give examples of each in plants and in animals.
Convergence is when 2 distantly related species evolve similar adaptations to overcome similar problems.
Eg(1) Wings in insects and wings in birds.
Eg(2) Streamlined forms of sharks, dolphins, and marine turtles.
Divergence: is when 2 related species evolve different adaptations and become dissimilar.
Eg(1) Differences in forelimbs of a mole, a bat, a cheetah
Eg(2) Leaves of a maple tree, palm tree, pine tree
3.
Understand how structure relates to function (and vice versa) in plants and animals, and how these relationships are influenced by their environment.
Structure determines function and vice versa
Giraffes’ feet have adapted for running and bats’ feet have adapted for flying even though they have the same ancestors.
4.
Explain how smallpox was eradicated.
The smallpox vaccine is a live virus vaccine made from a virus called Vaccinia (cowpox), which is related to smallpox.
Intensified Eradication program began in 1967
The last known naturally occurring case of smallpox was diagnosed in 1977, in Somalia.
The World Health Organization (WHO) declared smallpox eradicated in 1980. "It was eradicated solely through vaccination".
WEEK 5
1.
Define transcription and the role of ribosomes.
Transcription
is the process by which the genetic information stored as a gene is copied into a mobile form of messenger (mRNA).
Once the mRNA has been processed in the nucleus, it is exported to the cytoplasm, where a ribosome will attach to the mRNA molecule and begin translation.
2.
Differentiate between mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA.
mRNA: An RNA molecule that serves as a template for protein synthesis; also called messenger RNA.
rRNA:
The rRNA forms a structural part of the ribosome. In the nucleus of eukaryotic
cells, it is transcribed as a large RNA molecule and is processed into three smaller pieces.
tRNA: A small RNA molecule that translates the nucleic acid codons of the mRNA molecule into the amino acid sequence of a protein.
3.
Describe the stages of translation.
Ribosomes codon so that tRNA anticodon can base pair with mRNA strand. After a few tRNAs, a peptide bond is formed. The ribosome moves mRNA 3 bases down.
4.
Define epigenetics. Identify different means of chromosome modifications in epigenetic regulation of gene expression.
Epigenetics is any change in inheritance not caused by permanent changes in genetic sequence.
5.
Explain where in the infection cycle of SARS CoV-2 RNA replication and translation takes place.
When the membrane of COV2 fuses with the membrane of the host, an RNA strand is released and RNA replication takes place. Translation of viral polymerase is done using the host ribosomes.
6.
Explain the roles of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi in the infection cycle of SARS CoV-2.
During the infection cycle of SARS-CoV-2, the viral proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm are transported to the ER, where they are folded and modified into their final functional form.
The Golgi apparatus is another membrane-bound organelle that is involved in the modification, sorting, and packaging of proteins. After the viral proteins have been modified in the ER, they are transported to the Golgi, where they are sorted into vesicles and transported to the site of virus assembly.
7.
Discuss the two-stage defense (immune) system of the host.
Two-part defense system:
Innate immunity: starts upon infection; kills virus and any cells damaged by it; pathogen not specifically targeted.
Adaptive immunity: also known as acquired immunity; occurs days later using parts of the virus (proteins) to produce special T-cells and B-cells that target the pathogen.
8.
Explain the basic principle behind vaccines. Based on what you know about the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the immune system, how do vaccines prevent major illnesses?
Vaccines protect us from disease by exposing us to an agent (antigen) related to the pathogen.
During exposure the body's adaptive immune system is activated to produce antibodies and develop memory cells.
When we are subsequently exposed to the actual pathogen our adaptive immune system is ready to respond and block or kills the pathogen.
WEEK 6
1.
Explain what an adaptation is.
Adaptation is the dynamic evolutionary process that leads to the accumulation
of traits through natural selection that increases the relative fitness of an organism in its environment. 2.
Define and explain the link between genotypic variation and phenotypic variation
Phenotype is the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with its environment.
Phenotypic variation arises from genotypic variation.
3.
Define the following: mutation, divergent selection, disruptive selection, hybridization, and ring species.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Mutations
—changes in DNA sequences of a gene or genes.
Divergent selection
—individuals of one species in a large population over a large area diverge in their use of resources.
Disruptive selection
—selection results in an uneven pattern of genetic differentiation.
Hybridization
—occurs when two species interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Ring species
—when an ancestral population expands its range around a geographic barrier such as a mountain range or river, limiting gene flow, speciation may occur.
4.
Explain the difference between positive and negative feedback.
Positive Feedback: This is the process by which changes in the levels of key compounds in the bodies of plants and animals activate physiological mechanisms that lead to further and further increases.
Negative feedback:
The primary mechanism of homeostasis, in which a stimulus-a change in the external or internal environment-triggers a response that compensates for an environmental change.
WEEK 7
1.
Define ecology
Ecology studies the relationships between organisms and their environment. 2.
Define the following: abiotic, biotic, population, community, ecosystem, and emergent properties.
abiotic factors:
include the non-living components of the environment
such as climate, nutrient availability, precipitation, and availability of shelter
Biotic factors: include the living components of the environment such as population density, inter-and intraspecific competition, and life history traits.
Population: The number of individuals of a species (may be global, national or regional).
Community
: the collection of the population of all species that occupy some area.
Ecosystem: is a group of biological communities interacting with their shared physical environment.
Emergent properties: Properties that arise from interactions among elements (components) at different ecological levels.
3.
Review the different types of symbioses in terms of the cost and benefits of each interaction - provide an example of each.
Mutualistic:
both species involved have mutual benefits for example- legumes and rhizobia where rhizobia help with the formation of root nodules where nitrogen fixation takes place, and legumes allow for large populations of rhizobia to grow
Parasitic: either one of the species involved will gain benefits at the expense of the other species, for example, pine bark beetles and pine trees. Pine bark beetle is bitch
because they like to bore through the barks of pine trees and eat through their phloem, killing them
Commensalistic: one of the species benefits while the other is left unaffected like the commensalism relationship between whales and barnacles. The barnacles seek shelter on whales while the whales happily frolic about their fucking day. 4.
Define population explosions and population crashes, and give examples of these from history.
Population explosions
occur when population numbers rise quickly and dramatically.
Example: Cyclical explosions of pest populations happen in naturally occurring native
species
Population crashes occur when numbers decline quickly and dramatically.
populations of Australian thrip (Thrips imaginis)—a small, feathery-winged insect—
grow exponentially during favorable spring weather. But when the hot and dry summer weather sets in, the populations crash.
5.
Define ecological footprint, carbon footprint, and biocapacity
Ecological footprint - is the measure of human activity on the earth’s ecosystems
Carbon footprint - the total amount of greenhouse gases released due to our activity
Biocapacity- or carrying capacity is the maximum population size an ecosystem can sustain 6.
What are the main factors that produce physiological responses to climate change?
Physiological changes are affected by temperature, water availability, and CO2 7.
Describe population responses to climate change
There are two types of population responses to cli
mate change:
Changes in spatial distribution
Changes in population dynamics
WEEK 8
1.
Discuss local (within British Columbia) consequences of the heat dome of 2021
to terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
The heat dome caused disturbances in the community structure
More than a billion seashore animals, like mussels, clams, and sea stars died due to the heat dome. The heat dome caused unusually low tides which led to the mass death of marine animals. The heat dome also led to an increase in the frequency of wildfires which led to the loss of habitats. 2.
For a rocky shoreline identify five factors that determine community structure.
rocky shoreline, such as its exposure to waves, currents, and tides, can have a major
impact on the types of organisms that are able to live there.
For example, a rocky shoreline that is exposed to strong waves may only support hardy species that are able to withstand the rough conditions.
Temperature:
The temperature of the water and air can also affect the types of organisms that are able to survive on a rocky shoreline.
For example, cold water species may only be found on rocky shorelines in cooler regions, while warm water species may only be found in warmer areas.
Nutrient availability:
The availability of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, can also influence the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
Areas with high levels of nutrients may support more diverse and productive communities, while areas with low nutrient levels may be less diverse.
Competition:
The presence of other species can also affect the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
For example, species that are able to outcompete others for resources may be more successful in a given area, while less competitive species may be excluded.
Disturbance:
Disturbances such as storms and human activities can also influence the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
For example, a storm may destroy parts of a rocky shoreline, leading to changes in the species that are able to survive there. Human activities such as fishing and pollution can also affect the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
Physical factors such as the type of rock and its exposure to wave action, which can influence the availability of habitat and resources for different species.
Temperature and salinity of the water, which can affect the distribution and abundance of different species.
The availability of food and other resources, such as sunlight and oxygen, which can determine which species are able to survive and thrive in a particular area.
The presence of predators and competitors, which can influence the distribution and behavior of different species.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
The ability of species to disperse to and colonize new areas, which can affect the overall structure of the community over time.
3.
Distinguish between population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology.
Population ecology is the study of population structures and dynamics, and what factors influence them.
Community ecology focuses on interactions among different groups of organisms in an ecosystem. It is the study of a collection of species that occur in a given area
Ecosystem ecology focuses on the interactions between biological communities and their abiotic environment 4.
Describe different trophic relationships within a community and be able to illustrate them in a food web.
There are different types of relationships between species in a community:
mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, herbivory, predation, and competition
there are different trophic levels: producers like plants are at the bottom of the food chain, primary consumers are animals that eat producers like grasshoppers, and then secondary consumers, and then tertiary consumers
In a food web, these relationships are presented by drawing arrows, pointing from one organism to another, this shows the flow of energy (usually in a trophic pyramid)
5.
Define trophic pyramid, apex predator, trophic cascade, top-down control, bottom-up control, and keystone species, and provide examples of each and how they influence community structure and dynamics.
A trophic pyramid is a graphical/diagrammatic representation of the flow of energy, with the energy and biomass decreasing with every step up the pyramid. The biomass/energy decreases along with the pyramid because of the incomplete transfer of energy.
Apex predator is typically a predator at the top of the food chain, and usually has no other predators of its own. They usually have a significant impact on the ecosystem. - o
Like
sea otters
eat sea urchins which increases kelp abundance. Or Seastars
which increase biodiversity by feeding on mussels and eliminating the competitive dominance of mussels. Or bass fishes
which decrease the phytoplankton populations by feeding on them, increasing the zooplankton population which controls water visibility and light penetration in water. Or Large reef fishes
which help to keep the coral reef shapes
Trophic cascade is when predator-prey interactions have an impact on other trophic levels
Top-down control is when top predators control the populations of animals on the lower trophic levels
Bottom-up control is when producers and primary consumers control the populations of animals on upper trophic levels.
Keystone species is a class of species that have a sort of disproportionate impact on other species’ populations or species diversity than their numbers suggest, and the loss of this keystone species could be destabilizing to the ecosystem
6.
Discuss the relationship between niche and competition.
Competition can influence the niche an organism occupies. Niche is an ecological role inhabited by an organism
. It’s common to find multiple organisms coexisting to occupy the same niche as long as they are in different ecosystems, and as long as their niches are not overlapping. If this happens, there is competition for limited resources, and the organism with a higher competitive advantage will push the other organism out of its niche, or completely send it into extinction.
Competition can occur both within a species (intraspecific competition) or with different species (interspecific competition)
7.
Define the competitive-exclusion principle and give an example from your ecosystem of choice.
Competitive-exclusion principle states that no two species could occupy the same niche in the same ecosystem with the same environmental conditions and that one would always have a competitive advantage over the other. So if two species have the same niche (require the same types of resources to survive), the more competitively advantaged species will push the other species out of its niche/ make it go to extinction.
Paramecium caudatum and paramecium aurelia have the same niches and when grown together paramecium aurelia would out-resource paramecium caudatum and completely eliminate it
8.
Identify two different types of disturbance and explain their impact on the ecosystems they occur.
Disturbances are discrete events that can alter an ecosystem’s available resources, community structure, or the physical environment
Disturbances can be catastrophic: volcano, hurricane, or fire
Disturbances can be smaller and less intrusive: a tree falling or a whale carcass falling onto the sea bed
Disturbances can vary in destructiveness, frequency, and duration
Disturbance disrupt the status quo and change the balance between species by opening up new niches for previously outcompeted species 9.
Describe primary and secondary succession and provide a detailed example of
each.
Succession is the changes in a community of species over time following a disturbance
Primary succession involves the succession of habitat in a barren land/land without soil (the organisms start from scratch) - ex. Erupting volcanoes, and retreating glaciers
Secondary succession involves the succession of habitat in an environment where a community has existed already. It involves the re-establishment of a community in an
area where there has been a disturbance. - ex. Succession after the decomposition of a whale carcass, succession after forest fire 10. Explain what a climax community is and why it may not occur in all communities.
Climax community is when an ecosystem is already in a steady state. It is when the proportions of a species remain relatively constant, their demand for resources meets
the supply and the major vegetation type does not change. It is the final stage of succession.
It may not occur in all communities because the frequency of disturbances makes it difficult to reach a steady state and it is very likely that any ecosystem is currently undergoing some sort of active succession. 11. Distinguish between introduced and invasive species and their impact on natural ecosystems.
Introduced species can change relationships among a community’s organisms
Invasive species are introduced species that damage ecosystems and communities
They are different …………..
Introduced species:
also known as non-native or exotic species, are species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced to a new environment where they did not previously exist.
These species can have a range of impacts on the new environment, both positive and negative.
For example, some introduced species, such as certain types of fish, can be used for recreational purposes or as a source of food. Other introduced species, such as certain plants, can provide aesthetic value or other benefits.
Invasive species:
introduced species that have a negative impact on the environment, economy, or human health.
These species are often highly adaptable and are able to outcompete native species for resources, leading to declines in native species populations and changes in the ecosystem.
Invasive species can also cause economic harm, for example by damaging crops or infrastructure, or by spreading diseases.
Impact of introduced and invasive species on natural ecosystems:
can be significant.
In many cases, these species are able to outcompete native species for resources, leading to declines in native species populations and changes in the ecosystem.
This can result in a loss of biodiversity, as well as changes in the ecosystem's structure and function.
Additionally, the introduction of invasive species can cause economic harm, for example by damaging crops or infrastructure, or by spreading diseases. Therefore, it is important to carefully consider the potential impacts of introducing non-native species to a new environment.
12. Identify methods for evaluating biodiversity.
There are 3 ways to measure biodiversity
Species richness, the number of species present
Species abundance, the number of individuals present per species
Genetic diversity, and genetic variation within a species 13. Distinguish between four biogeochemical cycles, and provide examples of how
nutrients flow between biotic and abiotic systems.
The carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and sulfur cycle
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
The carbon cycle cycles carbon through the 4 reservoirs 14. Distinguish between nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification.
The process by which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into other forms such as ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites, which are compounds that can be used by plants
Nitrification is the process by which ammonium is converted into nitrate
Denitrification is the process by which nitrates are converted to nitrogen gas 15. Explain the roles of primary producers and bacteria in the biogeoclimatic cycles discussed in BIOL 111.
Primary producers (autotrophs, organisms that are capable of producing their own food using energy from using sunlight or inorganic compounds) play a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycles, as they are the starting point for the flow of energy and nutrients through ecosystems.
For example, in the carbon cycle, primary producers use photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into organic compounds, such as sugars. These organic compounds are then used as food by other organisms, or are broken down by decomposers,
releasing the carbon back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Bacteria are a type of microorganism that are present in almost all ecosystems.
Some bacteria are primary producers, and can use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to produce their own food. Other bacteria are decomposers, and play a crucial role in breaking down organic matter and releasing nutrients back into the environment.
Bacteria are important in the biogeochemical cycles because they are involved in many of the key processes that drive these cycles.
For example, in the nitrogen cycle, certain bacteria are responsible for nitrogen fixation, which converts nitrogen gas into a usable form. Other bacteria are involved in nitrification and denitrification, which convert nitrogen-containing compounds into nitrate and nitrite ions, and then back into nitrogen gas.
In summary, primary producers and bacteria play important roles in the biogeochemical cycles by converting energy and nutrients from the abiotic environment into forms that can be used by other organisms. They are the foundation of many ecosystems, and without them
the cycles that sustain life on Earth would not be possible.
16.
Identify the agencies responsible for assessing the vulnerability status of organisms.
There are a number of agencies that are responsible for assessing the vulnerability status of organisms:
At the world level, these agencies establish rankings G, N, S…:
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
The Nature Conservancy (NatureServe)
In Canada:
Species at Risk Act (Sara)
Committee of the Status of the Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC)
In BC
Provincial Conservation Data Centre (CDC)
17.
Explain what the designations G, N, and S stand for and how modifier codes are applied (X, H, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc).
G- global rank and is established on the status of the species in its entire range
N- national rank and is established based on the status of the species in the country
S- subnational rank and is established based on the abundance of the species within the province
1 = Critically imperiled — At very high risk of extinction or elimination due to very restricted range, very few populations or occurrences, very steep declines, very severe threats, or other factors.
2 = Imperiled– At high risk of extinction or elimination due to restricted range, few populations or occurrences, steep declines, severe threats, or other factors.
3 = Vulnerable — At moderate risk of extinction or elimination due to a fairly restricted
range, relatively few populations or occurrences, recent and widespread declines, threats, or other factors.
4 = Apparently Secure — At the fairly low risk of extinction or elimination due to an extensive range and/or many populations or occurrences, but with possible cause for
some concern as a result of local recent declines, threats, or other factors.
5 = Secure — At the very low risk of extinction or elimination due to a very extensive range, abundant populations or occurrences, and little to no concern from declines or
threats.
X = Presumed Extinct (Global) or Extirpated (National, Subnational) (species) —Not located despite intensive searches and virtually no likelihood of rediscovery. Presumed Eliminated (ecosystems, i.e., ecological communities and systems) — Eliminated throughout its range, due to loss of key dominant and characteristic taxa and/or elimination of the sites and ecological processes on which the type depends.
H = Possibly Extinct/Extirpated (species) or Possibly Eliminated (ecosystems) —
Known from only historical occurrences but still some hope of rediscovery. Examples of evidence include:
(1) that a species has not been documented in approximately 20-40 years despite some searching and/or some evidence of significant habitat loss or degradation
(2) that a species or ecosystem has been searched for unsuccessfully, but not thoroughly enough to presume that it is extinct or eliminated throughout its range
18.
Be able to interpret the designations species at risk are assigned.
?????????
In the red list, SX means the animal is subnationally extinct (S- subnational & X- extinct). Likewise, S1, would mean that the animal is subnationally critically imperiled.
19.
Discuss how biogeoclimatic zone types are determined and how such categorization is useful.
There are 4 different biogeoclimatic zone types:
Lowland forests along the Coastal range and Vancouver Islands (Coastal Western Hemlock Zone)
S.E Vancouver Island, Gulf Islands and some mainland (Coastal Douglas Fir Zone)
Mountain Hemlock Zone
Interior Cedar-Hemlock Zone
It is useful in the sense that such categorization enables us to observe and keep track of changes in an ecosystem, which can be helpful to battle climate change.
WEEK 9
1.
Define population bomb.
An uncontrolled increase in the population over time.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
2.
Describe the growth rates of the human population, and explain the impact of migration, improved health, and technology on human population dynamics.
Human population has been growing at an unprecedented rate since after the industrial era. In the past 200 years, they have overcome the density-dependent population regulation; due to increased/carrying capacity
Population growth occurs exponentially and increases according to the birth rate.
Populations can outgrow their resources
At least 3 factors dramatically extend the carrying capacity of the human population:
technology, healthcare, & migration
Technology
: concentrated manufacturing that could produce goods quickly and more cheaply – and technologies to improve food production, which people started relying more and more on.
Health
: Infrastructure and machinery to provide clean water and divert human
waste made the spread of diseases much slower. Improved health care reduced mortality – more people lived longer and more survived to reproductive age.
Migration: migration allows populations to deal with local limitations to carrying capacity by distributing the population more broadly
3.
List the stages of the demographic transition model
The pre-industrial stage, characterized by high birth rates and high death rates, leading to a relatively stable population.
The transitional stage, in which death rates begin to decline due to improvements in public health and medicine. This leads to a rapid increase in population.
The industrial stage, in which birth rates also begin to decline due to factors such as urbanization, education, and improved economic opportunities for women. This results in a slowing of population growth.
The post-industrial stage, in which both birth rates and death rates are low, leading to
a stable or even declining population.
4.
Describe the demographic transition model.
The demographic transition model describes the changes in the birth and death rates
and relative population sizes through stages of economic development
The relationship between a country’s population growth and its economic growth is described by the demographic transition model 5.
Describe human population growth rate patterns as they vary in different countries and regions around the world.
Global population growth is not distributed evenly, and there is a considerable amount of variation in the rates of population growth.
There are 3 main patterns in human population growth rate
Zero growth, rapid growth, negative growth
Zero growth, is when the birth rate and the death rate are approximately equal, leading to a stable population size
Rapid growth is when the birth rate is higher than the death rate and this leads to a rapidly increasing population
Negative growth is when the death rate is higher than the birth rate, leading to
a decline in population growth
Population growth around the world is not distributed evenly because each country and region has a different economic standing
Population growth is dependant on the economic development of a particular country
While the overall population is growing, some regions around the world are at zero population growth like poorer, less developed countries, while others are at rapid development
6.
Describe the impact of population control on human populations in specific countries or regions of the world.
In some cases, population control policies can be successful in reducing the rate of population growth, which can have positive effects on a country or region. For example, China implemented the One Child per family policy, which was successful to some extent as it reduced the rate of population growth, however because of this there was an imbalance in the number of male babies being born which led to a predominantly male led country. In other cases, population control policies can have negative consequences, such as infringing on individuals' rights to have children or leading to the use of forced sterilization or other abusive practices. Overall, the impact of population control on human populations can be complex and multifaceted.
Population control measures aim to regulate the growth of the human population in order to reduce the strain on natural resources and the environment.
These measures can include a variety of policies and programs, such as promoting family planning and access to birth control, providing education and incentives for small families, and implementing measures to reduce mortality rates.
7.
Describe the impact of human population growth on ecosystems
The rapid growth of the human population has had a significant impact on ecosystems around the world. As the population grows, there is an increased demand for food, water, and other resources, which can put a strain on the environment. This can lead to habitat destruction, pollution, and other negative effects on ecosystems. In addition, the expansion of human settlements and infrastructure can disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems and harm the plants and animals that live in them.
One of the main ways in which human population growth affects ecosystems is through the process of urbanization. As more people move into urban areas, natural habitats are often converted into urban landscapes, leading to the loss of biodiversity and the disruption of natural processes. In addition, the growth of cities can also lead to air and water pollution, which can have negative impacts on the health of ecosystems and the species that depend on them.
Another way in which human population growth can affect ecosystems is through the overuse of resources. As human populations grow, the demand for food, water, and other resources increases, leading to the overuse of these resources. This can lead to
the depletion of natural resources, such as freshwater aquifers and forests, and can also lead to soil erosion and other forms of environmental degradation.
8.
Define ecological footprint, carbon footprint, and biocapacity
Ecological footprint
measures the amount of biologically productive land and water area an individual, a city, a country, a region, or all of humanity uses to produce the
resources it consumes and to absorb the waste it generates with today’s technology and resource management practices.
Carbon footprint
is a measure of the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that are emitted into the atmosphere as a result of the activities of an individual, organization, or community.
Biocapacity
is a measure of the amount of biologically productive land and water available for human use.
9.
List what the ecological footprint measures on the demand side
On the demand side, the Ecological Footprint measures the ecological assets that a given population requires to produce the natural resources it consumes (including plant
‐
based food and fiber products, livestock and fish products, timber and other forest products, space for urban infrastructure) and to absorb its waste, especially carbon emissions.
10.
List the ecological assets that contribute to the ecological footprint on the supply side
On the supply side, a city, state or nation’s biocapacity represents the productivity of its ecological assets (including cropland, grazing land, forest land, fishing grounds, and built
‐
up land). These areas, especially if left unharvested, can also absorb much of the waste we generate, especially our carbon emissions.
11.
Distinguish between an ecological deficit and an ecological reserve
An ecological deficit is when the demand for the resources by a population exceeds the supply by the natural environment
If a population’s Ecological Footprint exceeds the region’s biocapacity, that region runs an ecological deficit.
An ecological reserve is when a region’s biocapacity exceeds its Ecological Footprint,
it has an ecological reserve
Its demand for the goods and services that its land and seas can provide—fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, wood, cotton for clothing, and carbon dioxide absorption—
exceeds what the region’s ecosystems can renew. (ecological deficit)
A region in ecological deficit meets demand by importing, liquidating its own ecological assets (such as overfishing), and/or emitting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. 12.
Define Earth Overshoot Day and what can be done to change it
Earth overshoot day is when humanity has used the resources that it takes the planet
the full year to regenerate. Earth Overshoot Day has moved from early October in 2000 to August 22 in 2020.
To change it, we must make ecological limits central to our decision
‐
making and use human ingenuity to find new ways to live well, within the Earth’s bounds. This means investing in technology and infrastructure that will allow us to operate in a resource
‐
constrained world. It means taking individual action, and creating the public demand for businesses and policy makers to participate.
13.
Distinguish between the ecological footprints of consumption, production, and
trade
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
WEEK 10
1.
Define G1, S phase, G2, and G0, centromeres and sister chromatids.
G1 stands for Gap 1 in the initial growth phase
S stands for synthesis in the DNA replication phase
G2 stands for Gap 2 in preparation for cell division, where cell continues to synthesize proteins and grow
G0 is a period of cell arrest, where cells do not divide
Centromeres is a specialized chromosomal region that connects sister chromatids and attaches them to the mitotic spindle
Sister chromatids is one of 2 exact copies of a chromosome duplicated during replication 2.
List the phases of mitosis.
Mitosis (nuclear division) consists of 4 major phases:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
3.
Describe the role of checkpoints in the cell cycle.
The cell has mechanisms in the form of checkpoints that check for errors in the DNA and either repair the damaged DNA or halt the cell cycle. Overall, checkpoints play a
crucial role in the cell cycle by ensuring that cells divide accurately and efficiently, and by preventing damaged or abnormal cells from proliferating.
4.
List the various checkpoints and each of their particular roles.
There are three major checkpoints:
• Between the G1 and S phases (most imp): it commits the cell to divide.
• Between the G2 Phase and mitosis: the new DNA that has been replicated is inspected to ensure that DNA replication is complete and that any errors during this process has been rectified • During mitosis –between metaphase and anaphase: Ensures proper division of chromosomes –that the sister chromatids will separate accurately during anaphase providing each new daughter cell with the proper number of chromosomes
5.
Define the following: cancer, tumor, neoplasm, benign tumor, malignant tumor, carcinoma, sarcoma, leukemia, and lymphoma.
Cancer
: Cancer is a group of cells that are growing and dividing via a deregulated cell cycle.
Tumor & Neoplasm: The cells grow to form a mass or lump of cells referred to as a tumour or neoplasm
Benign tumor
: remain localized within their environment
Malignant tumor:
spread to nearby or distant organs
Carcinoma:
cancer originating from cells that line the inner or outer surfaces of the body (e.g., skin cancer)
Sarcoma:
cancer originating from supportive tissue (e.g., bone cancer)
Leukemia: cancer originating from blood-forming tissues (e.g., myelogenous leukemia)
Lymphoma
: cancer originating from white blood cells of immune system (e.g., Hodgkin lymphoma)
6.
Define and describe metastasis, proto-oncogene, oncogene, and tumor suppressor gene.
Metastasis is the spread of cancer cells from their original site to other parts of the body. It uses vessels from both circulatory and lymphatic systems to spread
Proto-oncogene is any gene in a cell that the POTENTIAL to become a cancerous gene IF mutated or altered
Oncogene is any gene, that once it is deregulated, is capable of inducing one or more characteristics of cancer cells
Tumor suppressor gene: These genes encode for tumour suppressor proteins that reduce or inhibit cell division and thus are important in regulating the cell cycle. 7.
\Discuss the association between poppies and war.
Poppies are often associated with war because of John McCrae’s poem “In Flanders Field”, written during World War 1. In the poem, McCrae describes the
fields of Flanders (a region in Belgium) covered in red poppies, which became a symbol for the bloodshed and sacrifice of the soldiers who fought in the war.
The Great War Veterans Association adopted the poppy as a symbol of remembrance and respect for the Canadian soldiers who fought and sacrificed their lives for our country.
Madame Guerin started a charity to rebuild France by sewing fabric poppies. Money made through the donations for the poppies we wear goes toward assistance of veterans in financial need.
8.
Discuss the outbreak, transmission, and treatment of five agents of infectious diseases during wartime.
The 5 agents: Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and worms
The most prevalent were influenza, malaria, typhoid, typhus, trench foot, trench fever, dysentery, and pneumonia (highlighted below)
Dengue, malaria, and yellow fever all carried by mosquitoes
Bubonic plague, typhus are all carried by fleas
trench fever, is carried by mites
Malaria is a protozoan injected by mosquitoes, treated by the quinine plant during war as it deters the mosquito from biting and also prevents plasmodium
from dividing
Scrub typhus, mite borne disease carried by rats, is treated by Drimia maritima (a potent rat killer)
Regulation of heart beat by Digitalis purpurea (foxglove)
Pupil dilation by Atropa belledonna (deadly nightshade) - contains atropine which reverses the effects of poisoning by nerve agents designed for chemical
warfare. It can act as a sedative. Scopolamine can act as a truth agent
Thorn apple similar to Atropa belledonna
9.
Compare and contrast how war impacts the food supply for both civilians and soldiers in combat.
Civilians would receive reduced food rations so soldiers can get a higher ration. So they tended to growing their own farms and gardens
Civilians were also involved in the war effort as they would work in manufacturing for example plane parts out of wood
Soldiers got rations depending on their location and their status
!!!
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
10.
Explain the significance of the discovery and development of penicillin during wartime.
Penicillin was important in the treatment for Soil
‐
borne bacteria, Wound infections, Venereal diseases (Gonorrhea, Syphilis)
It led to a lot of technological development 11.
Explain the function of antibiotics and why they aren’t the only types of treatments important during wartime.
Antibiotics are medications that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. They work by disrupting the bacteria's ability to produce proteins, which are essential for the bacteria's survival and growth. Antibiotics are effective against a wide range of bacterial infections, including pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis.
Although antibiotics are an important tool for treating bacterial infections, they are not the only type of treatment that is important during wartime. This is because antibiotics are not effective against viral infections, which can also be transmitted during wartime. Additionally, some bacterial infections may become resistant to antibiotics over time, making it more difficult to treat these
infections effectively.
It is important to use a variety of treatments, including vaccines, antiviral medications, and other medications that can help to boost the immune system,
along with maintaining a good hygiene 12.
Identify three non-food plants that played important roles during wartime and explain how they are obtained and used.
Cotton was used for wound dressing - cotton seeds would contain hairs which could be yanked off and made into clothing or wound dressing
Bog moss was an alternative to cotton (keystone to its ecosystem)- really absorbent
!!!
13.
Explain why the number of deaths due to disease relative to war injuries have decreased over the last 100 years.
due to advances in medical science and public health. Over the last century, there have been many significant advancements in the field of medicine that have allowed doctors and other healthcare professionals to better diagnose and treat a wide range of diseases. In addition, there have been major improvements in public health, such as the development of vaccination programs and the implementation of effective hygiene and sanitation measures, which have helped to reduce the spread of infectious diseases. As a
result of these advances, the number of deaths due to disease has decreased, while the number of deaths due to war injuries has remained relatively constant.
14.
Discuss the consequences of using defoliating agents (such as Agent Orange) to humanity and local biodiversity.
Agent Orange is a herbicide which was used in the Vietnam war, to clear forest for agriculture
These chemicals are highly toxic and can cause a range of health problems in those who are exposed to them, including cancer, birth defects, and other serious health issues. These chemicals can kill plants and trees, which can
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
have a cascading effect on the animals and insects that rely on them for food and habitat, leading to an overall loss of biodiversity
!!!
15.
Identify factors of war that negatively impact biodiversity.
War results in deliberate destruction of the habitats of animals due to the usage of military weapons, like mines, or bombs, and of course using them in the line of action, directly against the enemy. Pollution and usage of weapons like chemical weapons leads to the release of harmful chemicals into the environment. More indirect forms of damage to wildlife include human migration and displacement, along with lack of conservation activities
Wars also has devastating effects on plants, due to nutrient depleted soils and reduced biodiversity at the ecosystem level 16.
Discuss the positive outcomes of the war on humankind and the environment.
American Civil war led to the significant use of anesthesia
World War 1 caused the regular use of blood transfusions
WW1 led to the development of chemotherapy for cancer treatment
WW2 led to the expansion in the use of antibiotics
Sanitary pads were created after WW1
Drones were created
Radar technology was used
Jet engines were developed
Led to the use of electronic computers and the
Led to the development and mass production of satellites, rocket ships and space stations
War led to the development and further advancement in technology and healthcare, but all these advantages always come with such a high cost Week 11 1.
Identify and explain the two physiological systems in animals that control chemical communication.
Two physiological systems of chemical communication that are structurally and functionally related but that control different types of activities:
1.
Hormones
Hormones are chemicals secreted by specialized cells that generally control and coordinate slow, long
‐
acting responses of multiple tissues or organs. Usually involves transcription and translation of DNA, leading to the synthesis of new proteins that remain active for hours, weeks, months, or even years.
2.
Nervous System
The nervous system controls and coordinates activities that are fast and immediate and can selectively act on only one tissue or organ. Allow animals to react rapidly to changes in their internal or external environment.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
2.
Compare and contrast hormonal control and neural control.
The main differences between these two regulatory systems are the speed and specificity of their actions.
Both involve chemical signals that cause cellular responses by interacting with specific receptors on or in their target cells.
Each hormone and neurotransmitter binds only to a specific receptor protein that has the right shape and charge characteristics to produce a chemical bond.
3.
Define the following: hormones, target cells, receptor proteins, autocrine regulation, paracrine regulation, neuroendocrine regulation, neurohormones, endocrine gland, and exocrine gland.
Hormones: are chemicals secreted by specialized cells that generally control and coordinate slow, long-acting responses of multiple tissues or organs.
Target cells: A cell with receptors for a certain chemical signaling molecule.
Receptor proteins: Proteins that recognize and bind molecules from other cells that act as chemical signals.
Autocrine regulation: a chemical is released that acts on the same cells that release it to either reduce or increase their sensitivity to other stimuli.
Paracrine regulation: a cell releases a chemical that acts on its neighbors.
Neuroendocrine regulation: In neuroendocrine regulation, specialized nerve cells release a chemical into the circulation when stimulated.
Neurohormones: Hormones produced by nerve cells.
4.
Explain the major types of cell signaling in the hormonal and nervous ̛̛
systems.
Autocrine Regulation: a chemical is released that acts on the same cells that release it to either reduce or increase their sensitivity to other stimuli.
Paracrine Regulation: a cell releases a chemical that acts on its neighbors.
Classical Endocrine Regulation: Endocrine glands secrete hormones.
Neuroendocrine Regulation: In neuroendocrine regulation, specialized nerve cells release a chemical into the circulation when stimulated.
Classical Neural Regulation: nerve cells release neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline and acetylcholine directly onto their target cells.
5.
Explain the reaction pathway of peptide hormones and compare it to that of
steroid and fatty acid hormones, such as estrogen.
Peptide hormones, such as adrenaline, diffuse readily into extracellular and vascular fluids but do not cross membranes easily. As a result, they act on target cells by binding to receptors at the cell surface on the outside of the membrane. When a surface receptor binds a hormone, it changes shape, and this results in a cascade
of chemical events inside the cell. Typically, the cascade (or signal transduction pathway activates or inhibits a functional protein, such as an enzyme, an ion channel, or a transport protein.
The steroid and fatty acid hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone, are not water-soluble. As a result, they must bind to water-soluble carrier proteins before
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
they can be transported in vascular or other fluids. Once they contact a target cell,
the hormone is released from its carrier protein and diffuses readily through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane. These hormones bind to receptors within the cytoplasm or nucleus. The hormone–receptor complex that is formed usually either activates or inhibits the transcription of specific genes in the nucleus.
6.
Describe how amplification works in hormonal activation after a hormone is bound to a receptor.
Once a hormone binds to its receptor, it will activate whichever signalling cascade the
receptor is linked to. These are genetically programmed in different ways in different cells at different developmental stages in different species. Researchers are working hard to unravel these pathways. The net result is that any individual cell may respond to more than one hormone, and different cells may respond in different ways to the same hormone.
7.
Describe how glucose levels are homeostatically controlled
Blood glucose levels are homeostatically regulated.
Levels are high following a meal and excess glucose is sent to the liver and muscles and stored as glycogen.
Between meals, glycogen is converted back into glucose as blood levels fall.
The regulation of blood glucose levels is under the control of two hormones insulin and glucagon
8.
Explain the basis of diabetes
Diabetes mellitus results from problems with the production or action of insulin.
Type 1 diabetes, which occurs in about 10% of diabetics, results from insufficient insulin secretion by the pancreas. This type of diabetes is usually caused by an autoimmune reaction that destroys pancreatic beta cells.
In type 2 diabetes
, insulin is usually secreted at or above normal levels, but the target cells of affected people have significantly reduced responsiveness to the hormone compared with the cells of normal people. 9.
Define macronutrients, micronutrients, and essential nutrients.
Macronutrients: nutrients required in large amounts.
Micronutrients: nutrients required in small amounts.
Essential Nutrients: If they must be obtained from the environment in plants or from eaten food in animals, they are referred to as essential nutrients.
10. Identify the three key nutrients that plants need, and explain what each is specifically used for.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Three of the key minerals that plants require are:
1.
Nitrogen
—key component of amino acids, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, ATP, plant enzymes and hormones.
2.
Phosphorus
—key component of nucleic acids, ATP, and phospholipids.
3.
Potassium
—key component in many enzymes and main solute in intra- and extracellular fluids.
11.
Explain why animals must obtain both the organic and inorganic nutrients they
need from their diet, whereas plants need to obtain only the inorganic nutrients
they need
Animals must obtain both the organic and the inorganic nutrients required to build complex biological structures and as an energy source.
Plants grow, develop, and survive exclusively on inorganic compounds. Plants are autotrophs and use inorganic compounds (e.g., CO2 and water) from the air and soil to build organic compounds (e.g., sugars and starches).
12.
Describe how plants store energy, compare this to how animals store energy and give reasons why they differ.
Plants store excess energy as starch.
Animals store excess energy as fats.
Starch is a storage form that can be quickly mobilized to release stored energy, but as it contains only half the stored energy per gram of tissue as fat, it is bulky. This is not a problem for a stationary plant. For mobile animals, however, bulk can be a problem, hence, animals store their energy in the compact, energy-rich form of fat.
Week 12
1.
Identify the main types of agents that cause disease.
Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
Protozoans
Worms
2.
Explain what a disease vector is. Give examples.
Vectors of Disease carry and transmit an infectious pathogen into other living organisms.
Arthropods. Eg: Ticks (Lyme)
Molluscs. Eg: Snails (Schistomiasis)
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Fomite (including water) Eg: Door Knob (Influenza)
3.
Define the four main types of transmission cycles for infectious diseases and explain one example of each.
Anthroponoses Direct Transmission
Anthroponoses Indirect Transmission
Zoonoses Direct Transmission
Zoonoses Indirect Transmission
!!!
4.
Identify the transmission category of SARS-CoV-2. Explain how zoonosis applies to this virus.
SARS-CoV-2 has a Zoonotic Direct transmission.
SARS CoV-2 is anthroponoses (direct transmission)
SARS CoV-2 had a zoonotic origin (disease carried from animal to animal)
5.
Predict how climate change could impact distribution patterns of three infectious diseases of your choice. Explain.
Rising temperatures cause extreme heat and severe weather conditions which could lead to injuries, fatalities, mental health impacts, health-related illness and death, and cardiovascular failure.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
6.
Define protist.
Any organism not classified as a—plant, animal,fungus, or prokaryote.
Protists are eukaryotic.
Most protists are unicellular (one-celled) but some are multicellular.
7.
Explain how protozoa can be beneficial and harmful.
Beneficial:
1.
Recycles nutrients by breaking down dead matter
2.
Food source—for other organisms
3.
Mutualism—both organisms benefit
Harmful
1.
e.g. Disease-causing parasites spread by insect bites 2.
Malaria—Plasmodium
vector: mosquito
3.
African Sleeping Sickness - Trypmosoma
vector: Tsetse fly
8.
Describe the protozoan that causes malaria. Explain how it is transmitted and why it is a major concern globally.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Plasmodium
is the protozoan that causes malaria.
It is transmitted by mosquitoes.
Malaria is a life-threatening disease. It is usually transmitted through the bite of an Anopheles mosquito carrying Plasmodium. This parasite is released into the bloodstream when the mosquito bites.
9.
Appreciate the diversity (and beauty) of fungi. (not a learning objective you can
use as a study question
.....
)
Fungi are unique among organisms but share characteristics with plants and animals.
!!!
10.
Compare nutrient absorption in humans and fungi (i.e. how are they similar?).
Fungi absorb their food from dead and decaying organic matter using digestive enzymes.
both are heterotrophic organisms (unable to produce food) - fungi have hyphae (long, thin, branching filaments) that have tiny pores called septa, which are then
used to absorb nutrients in the environment - fungus uses enzymes to break down nutrients to be absorbed by the fungus' cells
Explain how humans contract blastomycosis and how it causes health issues.
In the environment, Blastomyces dermatitidis exists as a mold with septate aerial
hyphae. The hyphae produce conidial spores. These spores are either inhaled or
inoculated into the skin of a susceptible host. The warmer temperature inside the
host signals a transformation into a broad-based budding yeast. The yeast may continue to colonize the lungs or disseminate in the bloodstream to other parts of
the body, such as the skin, bones and joints, organs, and central nervous system.
1.
Describe details about one disease [includes: description of the agents/vectors of disease, where it occurs, impacts on the human body, and treatment(s)
Malaria:
Agents: Protozoans, Plasmodium
is the protozoan that causes malaria.
Vectors: Mosquitoes
Where it occurs? It is most common in Africa, Asia, and South America, but it can also occur in other parts of the world.
Impact on the human body: symptoms include fever, chills, and flu-like illness.
In severe cases, malaria can cause organ damage, coma, and even death.
Treatments: The first effective treatment was quinine from the bark of the cinchona tree -> resistance -> artemisinins, chloroquines -> resistance
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
WEEK 13
1.
Define biotechnology, molecular biotechnology, and in vitro
.
Biotechnology: The use and manipulation of living organisms or biological materials for the production of useful products.
Molecular Biotechnology: The use of molecular biology techniques, such as cloning, to genetically alter organisms so that they can produce different useful products.
In vitro
: A type of experiment or procedure that is carried out in a laboratory using cell cultures or other artificial environments, rather than in a living organism. 2.
List examples in which humans harness the metabolic processes of other organisms to improve food.
Humans have long harnessed the metabolic processes of bacteria and yeasts
to improve our food. 3.
Define bioinformatics and describe how the use of computers greatly contributes to our knowledge of the biological world.
Bioinformatics involves the development of computer programming with biology and statistics to compare and predict DNA or protein sequences.
It is improving our ability to work with extremely large sets of data, such as the 3.2 gigabases of DNA sequence found in a human cell.
4.
Define polymerase chain reaction, thermocycler, and oligonucleotide primers.
A technique that uses a thermostable DNA polymerase and DNA primers to amplify a targeted DNA sequence.
5.
Describe the process of PCR.
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique using thermostable DNA polymerase and DNA primers to “amplify” a certain DNA sequence. The DNA to be copied is put in a tube with heat-stable DNA polymerase, dNTPs (deoxynucleoside triphosphate) & DNA oligonucleotide primers. The tube is then put into a thermocycler (a lab instrument that is used to rapidly heat and cool the mixture that is in the tube). A copy of the DNA template is generated. The cycle then repeats. Each time a cycle occurs there are twice as many fragment copies than there were, to begin with. This exponential increase will only come to a halt once the reaction runs out of dNTPs.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
During the process, the tube is heated first to break the hydrogen bonds that form the double helix. It is then cooled so the primers bind to a complementary portion of the single-stranded DNA. The temperature is raised back up to the optimal temperature of the enzyme in order to do the DNA replication. This cycle of modifying the molecular structure and building new DNA is repeated many times (usually 25-35 times). This results in over one billion copies of the DNA sequence. The process is quite fast with approximately 1000 bases of dNTPs being added to the primers per minute for the DNA template formation. However,
the time to complete the process is dependent on the length of the sample’s length.
PCR testing has many useful applications. One example that is relevant to our lives today is testing for covid. During a covid test, a swab sample is collected and placed in a tube with a solution. This solution contains something called reverse transcriptase which is also known as RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. This converts the SARS Cov-2 RNA into DNA. The primers, dNTPs, and DNA polymerase are then added to the solution and the tube is placed in a thermocycler in order to make copies of the SARS Cov-2 DNA so that eventually there will be enough of the viral DNA to be able to detect if someone has the virus.
6.
Describe how plasmids can be used in creating recombinant DNA.
A DNA molecule in the cytoplasm of certain prokaryotes; often contains genes with functions that supplement those in the nucleoid and that can replicate independently of the nucleoid DNA and be passed along during cell division.
7.
Define the following: functional genomics, proteomics, proteome, transcriptomics, and transcriptome.
Functional genomics: An area of research that examines transcript levels, protein levels, and protein functions to help explain how a cell is working.
Proteomics: The study of proteins found in a given cell or organism.
Proteome: The proteome is the entirety of the proteins that are produced or modified by an organism, tissue, or cell.
Transcriptomics: The study of all the transcripts present in a cell or organism.
Transcriptome: A term used to describe all the transcripts present in a cell or organism.
8.
Explain to a family member or friend the different ways in which foreign DNA is
introduced into plant cells.
(a) Agrobacterium
A soil bacterium called Agrobacterium does it naturally.
Causes a disease called "crown gall"
How it works in Nature
:
This bacterium has a plasmid called a Ti-plasmid (tumour-inducing plasmid).
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
When the bacterium comes into contact with the wound site of a plant it deposits a portion of the plasmid (called transfer-DNA, or T-DNA) into the plant cell.
This T-DNA is stably incorporated in the plant nuclear genome. These genes encode for growth regulators (hormones) which cause the plant tissue to proliferate forming a tumour.
Other genes from the T-DNA encode for compounds called opines.
These are chemicals which are used as carbon and nitrogen sources for the bacteria.
Sweet Deal for the Agrobacterium:
The bacterium infects plants and then gets them to manufacture food.
The tumour is also a nice place to live and reproduce for the bacteria.
Agrobacterium can be used to move genes into plants.
The T-DNA can have other genes incorporated into it.
The desired gene is introduced into plant cells using the Agrobacterium as a vector.
This process is called Transformation.
The transformed tissue can be cultured and ultimately new transgenic plants can be generated.
Transgenic plants are those which have been foreign DNA incorporated into their nuclear genome.
Marker - a gene that can be used to identify transformed tissue need to identify which cells have the new genes.
(b) Biolistics - microprojectile
This techniques is often used for plants which cannot be genetically altered by
other means. It is like a gun.
A particle (gold) is coated with the DNA you wish to introduce to the plant tissue.
The "gun" shoots the particle (microprojectile) at the piece of plant material.
The microproiectile penetrates some plant cells and hopefully the DNA will become incorporated into some of the cell's nuclear genome.
(c) Protoplasts
Protoplasts can be used to generate hybrid plants
Protoplasts (cells without cell walls) can be generated by treating plant tissue with enzymes that degrade cell walls.
Leaves are commonly used
Protoplasts from two different plants can be combined and the cells from them
can fuse to form a heterokaryon.
Generating transgenic plant cells:
Add pieces of DNA to protoplast culture.
Using a short, high-voltage charge of electricity makes a small hole in the cell membrane through which DNA can enter
....
hopefully some will be stably incorporated into the plant nuclear genome. - electroporation
The transformed cells are isolated using the culture techniques we have described and can be grown up into new plants.
9.
Explain tissue culture and discuss why parenchyma is usually the tissue type that is used to initiate plant tissue cultures.
Aseptic culture of plant cells or plant organs which often involves a test tube or Petri dish.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Parenchyma cells have the ability to divide and differentiate and are totipotent.
Plants are made up of many different cell types. Specialized cells (e.g. fibres) do not work well in tissue culture.
10.
Explain how an entirely new plant is generated from a piece of stem or an isolated plant cell.
By extracting parenchyma cells from a plant, it is possible to generate an entirely
new plant that would be a clone of the original plant. This is because parenchyma cells are totipotent, meaning like stem cells in animals, they can differentiate into any other cell type. For tissue culture, this extracted piece, called an explant, is placed in a sterile growth medium consisting of agar, hormones, and nutrients. This usually takes place inside a Petri dish or sometimes a test tube. From the growth medium, plantlets will grow. Afterward, the plantlets are moved into various growth mediums with varying hormone concentrations that promote the development of different organ systems (shoots,
for instance). From this process, new plants can be generated. Additionally, explants can be grown from a callus culture. A callus is a collection of parenchyma cells grown into a large lump. New plant generation from a callus culture would then follow a similar process to that of tissue culture. Some plants are cloned through the process of somatic embryogenesis, where the extracted embryo from a plant is treated with hormones to begin development, then the embryo is cloned to make a vast number of copies of the original embryo. Each viable embryo created from this process can develop into its own plant. Through these various cloning techniques, it is possible to create clones of a plant from pieces of any of the plant’s vital organs.
11.
Summarize alternative ways to generate new plants.
Callus can be introduced to a liquid medium in a flask. The flask is placed in a shaker. The shaking ensures that the cells come into contact with the medium and are oxygenated. The movement also keeps the cells in smaller clumps. This is called a suspension culture. The cells can be treated (hormones/growth regulators) to generate new plants.
12.
Explain why culturing of plant cells must be done in aseptic conditions.
Culturing of plant cells must be done in aseptic conditions to prevent contamination by other microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi.
13.
Describe some of the applications of tissue culture.
Tissue culture has numerous uses, specifically in the reproduction of plant clones
and variations. Five of these uses are as such: rapid clonal propagation, transgenic plants, somaclonal variation, micropropagation, and in-vitro
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
fertilization.
Rapid clonal propagation makes use of mitotic division from an explant and performs callus and suspension culture on them. As all cells are derived from the
same plant, this creates another plant with the same genotypes and therefore a clone.
Transgenic plants can be created through the transfer of transgenes, which are created through genetic engineering, into plantlets. It is done so by introducing such transgenes into the plantlets’ individual plant cells. These plantlets then grow into highly valuable transgenic plants.
Somaclonal variation induces plants with variations obtained from somatic cells
and gametic tissues, such as alteration in plant pigmentation, seed yield, plant vigor, and size. Some of the many uses of such variations are to create types of nuclear chromosomal rearrangements and losses, amplify or de-amplify genes, induce apparent point mutations, and re-activate silent genes in multigene families.
In-vitro fertilization is also an application of tissue culture. In-vitro fertilization is a valuable technology for interspecific and intraspecific genetic crosses. This aids in overcoming physiological incompatibility during hybrid development.
Micropropagation allows scientists to produce plants to use in labs and industries on a commercial scale. Some of these uses include the enhancement of axillary bud breaking and the production of somatic embryos with bioreactors. 14.
Explain how Agrobacterium
introduces DNA into a plant.
When Agrobacterium
comes into contact with the wound site of a plant it deposits a portion of the plasmid (called transfer-DNA, or T-DNA) into the plant cell. 15.
Explain how Agrobacterium
is used as a vector by humans to introduce foreign
DNA into plants.
A Common technique for modifying the genetic code of a plant cell requires the utilization of Agrobacterium
, a naturally occurring soil microbe. Agrobacterium
is a good vector for the introduction of new DNA because it naturally does this process through crown gall disease. The
Agrobacterium
has inside them something called a Ti-plasmid (Tumour-Inducing Plasmid), plasmids are small circular double-stranded DNA molecules found in the cytoplasm that can independently replicate.
A portion of the Ti-plasmid is what can get transferred into a cell and is known as T-DNA. It typically enters the cell due to the Ti-plasmid coming into contact with
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
the wound site of a plant and depositing T-DNA into the plant cell, the amino acids, sugars, and organic acids produced by wounded plants are what attract the Agrobacterium
.
This T-DNA has a small chance of being accepted into the genetic code of the plant cell. By swapping out the section of the Ti-Plasmid that becomes the T-DNA
we can choose what segment of DNA we wish to transfer into the plant cell. This creates what is known as a recombinant plasmid.
The final step is to introduce the Agrobacterium
containing the recombinant plasmid to the plant cells. Once introduced, the Agrobacterium
undergoes its natural process of transferring its plasmid into the plant cell. It does this through a process of what can be described as a forced injection. The plant then has a small chance to accept the new DNA into its own genome. This DNA, if incorporated into the plant's nuclear genome will then commonly encode for growth regulators.
Because there is a low chance of the DNA being accepted by the plant cell a large number of these
Agrobacterium
and plant cells are introduced to each other to receive the desired results. The induced T-DNA can also be manipulated
by humans to add other desired genes into the plant and thus, making Agrobacterium
a vector. Once accepted by the plant cell a process of culturing the transgenic plant cell to create full plants begins.
16.
Describe methods, other than Agrobacterium
, that are used to introduce foreign DNA into a plant.
Biolistics - microprojectile
This technique is often used for plants that cannot be genetically altered by other
means. It is like a gun.
Protoplasts
Protoplasts can be used to generate hybrid plants
Protoplasts (cells without cell walls) can be generated by treating plant tissue with enzymes that degrade cell walls.
17.
Identify six plant species that have been genetically modified. Explain how the modification has improved each plant’s success as a crop.
Corn:
GMO(Genetically modified) corn is created to resist insect pests or tolerate
herbicides and produce toxic proteins that are targeted to certain pests. For instance, Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) corn produces proteins that are toxic to certain pests, but are not harmful to humans and animals. GMO BT corn reduces
the need for spraying insecticides, while still preventing insect damage.
Soybeans: GMO (Genetically Modified) soybeans have herbicide-resistant genes inserted into their genetic structure which can destroy invasive weeds without harming the soybean plant.
Golden Rice:
Golden rice is genetically modified to produce beta-carotene within its fruit (the edible part of the plant) which does not happen naturally. Beta-
carotene is converted into vitamin A in the body, which is an essential nutrient. Since rice is a staple food in Asian countries, the addition of beta-carotene in Golden Rice helps fight vitamin A deficiency in developing countries in the region, where regular rice does not contain the proper nutrients.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Cotton: Cotton has been modified to be toxic to the bullworm by adding a gene from bacteria bacillus thurengiensis, (which is where it gets the tame “Bt” cotton)
Papaya: Modified Papayas have a gene from the ringspot virus in order to give it
a resistance to said virus. Papayas were dying at an alarming rate due to ringspots.
Canola: Canola has been genetically modified to be resistant to herbicides in order to make it easier to spray and kill weeds without killing the canola itself. (Roundup Ready)
18.
Explain the meaning of “Round-up Ready”. Explain how Round-up Ready plants differ from the same species that are not genetically engineered.
Roundup ready is a term used to describe plants that have been genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide Roundup. Roundup is a popular herbicide that contains the active ingredient glyphosate, which is effective at killing many types of weeds.
19.
Bacillus thuringiensis
is a bacterium. Explain its use in agriculture.
Knock out/alter genes to give a different growth form, non-browning, improved yield (abundance/size of fruit), resistance to pests/disease, drought tolerance, flavourenhancements, reduce gluten.
20.
Discuss the pros and cons of genetically engineered crops. Identify the most important issues surrounding this technology.
There are several potential benefits to using genetically engineered crops. For example, GE crops can be designed to be resistant to pests and diseases, which
can improve crop yields and reduce the need for pesticides. They can also be engineered to tolerate extreme weather conditions, such as drought or frost, which can make them more resilient and easier to grow in challenging environments. In addition, GE crops can be designed to have improved nutritional content, such as increased levels of vitamins and minerals.
However, there are also potential drawbacks to using genetically engineered crops. Some people are concerned about the safety of GE crops, as they may have unintended effects on the environment or on human health. There are also concerns about the potential for GE crops to create herbicide-resistant weeds, which could lead to the development of "superweeds" that are difficult to control. In addition, the use of GE crops can raise ethical concerns, as it involves altering
the genetic makeup of plants in ways that are not found in nature.
21.
Explain the "immune response" of a bacterium to a bacteriophage. Explain how this can be applied to eukaryote systems.
The immune response of a bacterium to a bacteriophage, also known as a phage, is a mechanism by which the bacterium can defend itself against infection
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
by the phage. When a phage infects a bacterium, it injects its genetic material into the bacterium's cell. The bacterium's immune response is triggered by the presence of this foreign genetic material, and it works to prevent the phage from replicating and spreading within the bacterium.
One way that bacteria can defend themselves against phages is through a mechanism called CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated systems). CRISPR-Cas systems are found in many bacteria, and they use short pieces of RNA to recognize and bind to specific sequences of DNA. When a phage infects a bacterium, the bacterium's CRISPR-Cas system can use its RNA to target and destroy the phage's DNA, preventing the phage from replicating.
This immune response of bacteria to phages can also be applied to eukaryote systems. Eukaryotes are organisms that have cells with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, and they include plants, animals, and fungi. CRISPR-Cas systems have been successfully used to edit the genomes of eukaryotic cells, allowing scientists to insert, delete, or modify specific genes in these cells. This has many potential applications, including the development of new medical treatments and the improvement of crops.
22.
Compare and contrast CRISPR technology with the transformation of plant tissues using Agrobacterium
.
CRISPR, otherwise known as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic
Repeats, concerns the removal or alteration of genetic material to an organism’s genome in a more precise fashion than other technology. CRISPR uses the “immune system” of prokaryotes to manipulate eukaryotic genomes. CRISPR is more accurate in terms of the placement of DNA in the genome; it can be very targeted to a specific place on one’s genome. Native DNA is used rather than placing external or exotic DNA into an organism’s genome. Changes made in a genome due to CRISPR could happen naturally due to evolution as no “exotic” or
unnatural DNA is inserted into an organism’s genome. It is faster, cheaper, more accurate and more efficient than other genome editing methods. Organisms that are the product of CRISPR are referred to as GE (genetically edited). The CRISPR arrays allow the bacteria to remember the viruses (even ones that are closely related). If the virus attacks again the bacteria would produce the RNA segment from the CRISPR that recognizes and attaches to specific regions of the DNA of the virus.
Agrobacterium, a soil bacterium that gets foreign DNA into a plant cell naturally, causes a disease called “crown gall”. It has a plasmid called “Ti-plasmid” that induces tumors. When the agrobacterium comes into contact with the wound site
of a plant, it deposits some of the plasmids called Transfer-DNA (or T-DNA) into the plant cell. The T-DNA is incorporated into the plant’s nuclear genome that encodes for growth regulators (hormones), which cause the plant tissue to proliferate and form a tumor. Other genes in the T-DNA encode for compounds called “opines”, which are carbon and nitrogen sources for the agrobacterium. Random in terms of placement of T-DNA in a genome, not precise or accurate. The main issue with this method is that some plant species are recalcitrant to regeneration. Exotic or external DNA is used to be placed within a genome (comes from the plasmid of agrobacterium which can be modified to contain exotic DNA). Unnatural changes are made to a species due to this insertion of “exotic” DNA (aka this altering of the genome would not happen over time due to evolution but only occurs due to external tampering of the genome). Highly expensive and it takes longer to research and develop a method to create a
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
GMO from agrobacterium. Organisms that are the product of agrobacterium editing are called GMOs (genetically-modified organisms). 23.
Describe the role of a plant in the development of treatments for COVID-19.
Herbal medicine is a type of product that took ingredients from plants. From thousands of years ago, herbal products have been used to treat various diseases. And nowadays, the results of different studies have shown that herbal products can reduce the severity and prevent COVID-19.
Garlic (Allium sativum) and onion (Allium cepa) are good materials for the treatment of patients with COVID-19. Onions have anti-inflammatory, anti-
thrombotic, and antiviral effects, while garlic has allicin and alliin, which are sulfur-containing compounds. The ability of garlic to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 is through the formation of hydrogen bonds between amino acids and the protease in SARS-CoV-2, which is responsible for the production of the virus.
Nigella sativa known as the black seed is also an ingredient of herbal medicine that has been used for a long time as a traditional therapy for a variety of diseases, including inflammation and infection. And recently, an Australian research review article has found that Nigella sativa is possible to treat COVID-
19 too. Much evidence from studies suggests that thymoquinone (known as fennel flowers), an active ingredient in Nigella sativa seeds, can adhere to the spike protein of the COVID- 19 virus and prevent the virus from causing lung infections.
In conclusion, Herbal medicine is very helpful in humans as it can interfere with the pathogenesis of COVID-19 by inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 replication and entry into host cells, and some can also be effective in preventing COVID-19 by enhancing the immune system.
24.
Discuss the benefits and potential drawbacks of Golden Rice.
Golden Rice is a type of genetically modified rice that has been engineered to contain high levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. This was done to address the problem of vitamin A deficiency, which is a major health issue in many developing countries, where rice is a staple food. Vitamin A deficiency can cause serious health problems, including blindness, increased susceptibility to infections, and even death.
One of the main benefits of Golden Rice is that it can provide a reliable and affordable source of vitamin A to people who would otherwise not have access to
it. This can improve the health and well-being of people in developing countries, and help to prevent the serious health problems that are associated with vitamin A deficiency. In addition, Golden Rice can be grown and distributed using the existing infrastructure for rice production, making it a cost-effective and efficient way to address the problem of vitamin A deficiency.
However, there are also potential drawbacks to the use of Golden Rice. Some people are concerned about the safety of genetically modified crops, and there are concerns that Golden Rice could have unintended effects on the environment or on human health. There are also concerns about the potential for
Golden Rice to create herbicide-resistant weeds, which could lead to the development of "superweeds" that are difficult to control. In addition, the use of
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Golden Rice raises ethical concerns, as it involves altering the genetic makeup of rice in ways that are not found in nature.
Overall, the benefits and potential drawbacks of Golden Rice must be carefully considered before it is widely adopted. While it has the potential to address a major global health problem, there are also valid concerns about its safety and potential impacts.
The infection cycle of SARS CoV-2 begins when the virus binds to the ACE2 receptor on the surface of the host cell, which is a type of transmembrane protein. Once the virus has entered the cell, it can start replicating itself using the cell’s resources. This process results in the production of new virus particles, which are released from the host cell and can infect other cells.
An overactive immune system, known as a cytokine storm, can have a significant impact on the respiratory system of the host. The immune system releases a high level of inflammatory
molecules, such as cytokines, which can cause damage to the lungs and lead to severe respiratory symptoms. In certain cases, this can be fatal.
Vaccination is one of the most effective ways to prevent COVID-19. Vaccines work by introducing a harmless version of the virus into the body, which helps the immune system to recognize and fight the virus if it is encountered in the future. There are two types of COVID-
19 vaccines currently available, Pfizer’s mRNA vaccine and Medicago’s protein vaccine. The
Pfizer vaccine is an mRNA vaccine, which uses a genetic code to trigger an immune response. The Medicago vaccine is a protein vaccine, which uses a protein to stimulate the immune system. Both types of vaccines have been proven to be effective at preventing COVID-19.
The infection cycle of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, begins when the virus attaches to and enters a host cell. The virus uses its spike proteins to attach to and enter host cells, typically those in the respiratory system. Once inside the host cell, the virus uses its own enzymes to replicate its genetic material and create more viral particles.
During this replication process, the host cell's machinery is repurposed to produce more viruses, which can then go on to infect other cells. The newly-formed viral particles are then released from the host cell, either through cell lysis (bursting of the cell) or through a process
called exocytosis, in which the virus is packaged into a vesicle and released from the cell.
In some cases, the immune system can mount an excessive response to the infection, known as a cytokine storm. This overactive immune response can cause widespread inflammation and damage to the body, including the respiratory system. This can lead to severe illness and, in some cases, death.
Vaccines can help prevent infection by SARS-CoV-2 by exposing the body to a harmless version of the virus or a piece of it, allowing the body to develop immunity without becoming sick. This can help prevent the spread of the virus and reduce the overall burden of disease.
There are several different types of vaccines for COVID-19, including those made by Pfizer and Medicago. The Pfizer vaccine uses messenger RNA (mRNA) technology to produce an immune response, while the Medicago vaccine uses a protein-based approach. These
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
vaccines work in slightly different ways, but both are effective at producing immunity to the virus.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Related Documents
Browse Popular Homework Q&A
Q: To fence in a rectangular field, 180ft of fencing are available. Find the dimensions of the largest…
Q: t
(hours)
L(1)
(cars per hour)
2
5
9
15 40 24 68
12
18
The rate at which cars enter a parking lot is…
Q: Procter and Gamble (PG) paid an annual dividend of $2.81 in 2018. You expect PG to increase its…
Q: Curved arrows are used to illustrate the flow of electrons.
Follow the curved arrows and draw the…
Q: The half-life of radium is 1690 years. If 50 grams are present now, how much will be present in 580…
Q: Which of the following muscles would you expect to be the largest based on the name? a. Contractus…
Q: 3. Complete the below table to calculate the balance sheet data in trend percents with 2019 as base…
Q: Can you integrate the cellular respiration and photosynthesis processes as it relates to producers…
Q: Consider the spring-mass-damper system given by:
* + 3x + 2x = 0
Write this as a matrix system of…
Q: 3.6 Describe the recursive subproblem for this problem. In other words, fill in the blank below:…
Q: Br
Based on the intermediate shown below, predict the preferred regiochemistry of
this reaction.
H₂O…
Q: A stroboscope is a light that flashes on and off at a constant rate. It can be used to illuminate a…
Q: 12. a. Suppose a function F: X→ Y is one-to-one but not
onto. Is F-1 (the inverse relation for F) a…
Q: Compute, by hand, the Fourier series representation for the following square wave defined
on a €…
Q: The goal of Taylor approximation is to approximate a function f(x) with a polynomial of degree n…
Q: Use the values below to decrypt the numerical ciphertext c = 133 , using the cryptoscheme:…
Q: Determine the scalar product of the following two vectors:
A-3.01+4.01-2.0k
B=2.01-6.0j-3.0k
Q: Write the interval of continuity for the function below:
tan(cos(x))
log6 (7)
f(x) =
for 0x< 2π
Q: How does the Covid19 crisis change the skill requirements and task contents of that internship/job
Q: Theodore is considering a 1-year training program, which charges $20,000 in tuition, to learn how to…
Q: During which stage of meiosis does crossing over occur?
A. Prophase I
B. Prophase II
C.…
Q: r answer to two decimal places in usual values in the million
Q: Find a degree 3 Taylor polynomial approximation of f(x) = (1+x)¹/2 centered at 0.
Q: Find all solutions of
(a)
4 = -1
24
(b) 2³ = 8i
(c) 25 = 1
(d) z² = 1 + i
Q: Based on the Movement of Water across a Selectively Permeable Membrane lab, what is a selectively…