GLGY 202 Topic 1 Part 2 The Earth System

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University of Alberta *

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Oct 30, 2023

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Earth as a habitat Readings Pages Chapter 3 • Rocks • Earth’s Deep Interior and Plate Tectonics • 52-59 • 59-64 Chapter 6 • Introduction • Weathering • 179 • 179-184 Part 2: The Earth System
What is the Earth System?
The Earth system is made up of four main “spheres”:
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Matter is neither created nor destroyed, but is recycled The ingredients for life (CHNOPS) were initially stored in Earth’s rocks, then transferred to the atmosphere through volcanism and to water through weathering.
When life did show up, it could extract the ingredients for life from the hydrosphere and atmosphere to build tissues.
Movements between spheres called biogeochemical cycles The water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle allow Earth to sustain life.
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How does the hydrologic cycle work?
The hydrologic cycle is the transfer of water among the spheres.
The hydrologic cycle is not smooth and continuous, but a stop and go process. Water is temporarily stored in one of several major reservoirs before it is transferred to another. Atmosphere Oceans Vegetation + snow and ice
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Earth is estimated to hold about 1,386,000,000 cubic kilometers of water: Atmosphere Oceans: 1.338E9 km 3 Vegetation
Water moves from reservoir to reservoir through several different processes:
The rate of transfer between reservoirs depends on temperature, wind, relative humidity, etc. Transfers represent volume moved per year 500 quadrillion L of water are moved through the hydrologic cycle every year
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How does the carbon cycle work?
The carbon cycle describes how carbon moves between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.
The carbon we have on Earth has been here since Earth formed. It has been recycled from one form to another over time.
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Carbon (C) is the building block of many molecules. C Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) ATP +amino acids +DNA
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Respiration/Oxidation C 6 H 12 O 6 +6 O 2 6CO 2 +6 H 2 O + energy
BURP FART
What if the plant dies?
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Decomposition
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Alternatively, the plant gets buried
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Coal
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Respiration/Oxidation C 6 H 12 O 6 +6 O 2 6CO 2 +6 H 2 O + energy Burning coal
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CaCO 3
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Limestone
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Carbon is temporarily stored in different reservoirs within each sphere and transferred to other reservoirs through various processes. Reservoir
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Just like water in the hydrologic cycle, the carbon cycle is a stop and go process. Carbon is temporarily stored in several major reservoirs, and the reservoirs vary in size. Carbon Reservoirs: • Atmosphere • Vegetation • Soils • Surface of the ocean • Deep ocean • Rocks and sediments Increasing size Which rock type stores most of the world’s carbon?
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Carbon may form organic or inorganic compounds: Organic Carbon Carbon bonded with hydrogen (=hydrocarbon), often in long chains that are (mostly) made in living things: • Proteins • Carbohydrates • Fats • DNA Inorganic Carbon Carbon not bonded to hydrogen; some are made by living things: • CaCO 3 (calcium carbonate) • CO 2
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The carbon in each reservoir takes different forms: Which rock type is made up of organic carbon? Inorganic? inorganic [CO 2 ] organic C mostly organic C inorganic C (dissolved) inorganic C (dissolved) Inorganic + organic C
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The carbon cycle allows organic carbon to become inorganic carbon and vice-versa This allows carbon to be exchanged freely among all reservoirs inorganic inorganic organic organic organic inorganic inorganic inorganic
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Rates of carbon exchange ( flux ) vary widely.
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How long does it take the atmosphere to fully exchange all of its carbon with the biosphere (vegetation)? The ocean mixed layer with the atmosphere? The deep ocean with the ocean mixed layer? Sediments and rocks with the atmosphere? The larger the reservoir, the longer it takes to exchange all of its carbon with another reservoir.
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Small surface reservoirs exchange all of their C with one another in a few years. (600 GT / 100 GT/y = 6y) Surface ocean fully exchanges its carbon with atmosphere in ~10 years (1000 GT/ 74.6 GT/y =13.4 y) Deep ocean partially isolated form surface ocean by temperature differences; exchanges C with surface ocean in >1000 years (38,000 GT/ 37 GT/y = 1027 y) C buried in seds and rocks takes >100 000 000 years to fully exchange with the atmosphere. (66,000,000 GT/0.2 GT/y = 330,000,000 y) To figure out how quickly a reservoir will exchange all of its carbon with another, take the size of the reservoir and divide it by the rate of exchange.
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These figures are a model of the preindustrial carbon cycle. Therefore, only natural processes and fluxes are represented in the figures. How does the geosphere naturally exchange it’s carbon with the atmosphere?
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Process Flux (relative to atmosphere) (billions of metric tons/year) Photosynthesis -120 Plant + soil respiration +120 Fossil fuel burning +6 Deforestation +2 Oceans dissolving CO 2 from atmosphere -107 Oceans exsolving CO 2 to atmosphere +105 Carbonate Rock formation -0.3 Weathering -0.6 Volcanoes +0.1 large fluxes are ~balanced year to year, which means that carbon into a reservoir = carbon out of that reservoir. Which processes are add carbon to the atmosphere? Which processes remove carbon from the atmosphere? Overall, is the amount of carbon in the atmosphere increasing or decreasing? Why?
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Scientific Models are physical, mathematical, or conceptual representations of a system of ideas, events or processes. Scientific models are not reality; they are simplified versions of reality.
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Process Flux (relative to atmosphere) (billions of metric tons/year) Photosynthesis -120 Plant + soil respiration +120 Fossil fuel burning +6 Deforestation +2 Oceans dissolving CO 2 from atmosphere -107 Oceans exsolving CO 2 to atmosphere +105 Carbonate Rock formation -0.3 Weathering -0.6 Volcanoes +0.1 Model 1: Model 2: What information is missing from each of these models?
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The length of time carbon stays in any given reservoir is called the residence time . Note: the surface ocean is in direct contact with the atmosphere and exchanges carbon easily with the atmosphere. The deep ocean partially isolated by temperature differences; exchanges C with surface ocean/atmosphere in >100 years. Reservoir Approximate Residence Time Atmosphere 5 years Land plants 10 years Soils 25 years Surface Ocean 11 years Deep Ocean 380 years Carbonate Rocks 150 million years
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Carbon sinks are reservoirs that remove more carbon from the atmosphere than they release, and store it for a long period of time. Carbonate rocks may be very large reservoirs with a very long residence time, but they remove carbon very slowly. The world’s oceans have a high flux, remove more carbon from the atmosphere than they release, have a long residence time and are a large reservoir. The oceans are a great carbon sink. Process Flux (relative to atmosphere) (billions of metric tons/year) Photosynthesis -120 Plant + soil respiration +120 Fossil fuel burning +6 Deforestation +2 Oceans dissolving CO 2 from atmosphere -107 Oceans exsolving CO 2 to atmosphere +105 Carbonate Rock formation -0.3 Weathering -0.6 Volcanoes +0.1
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Forests are also great carbon sinks, But there is a finite amount of space for trees on Earth. Deforestation reduces the storage capacity of the forest and returns some of that carbon to the atmosphere.
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How do other biogeochemical cycles work?
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Nitrogen Cycle
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Other cycles Although the processes, fluxes, and residence times vary, the other ingredients for life (sulfur and phosphorus) also cycle through the Earth system. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/the-sulfur-cycle/
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Rock Cycle The rock cycle includes large-scale process that describes how one rock type becomes another when it enters a new tectonic environment. Weathering and volcanism are two major processes that allow elements to exchange between the geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The rock cycle encompasses many biogeochemical cycles.
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Volcanism Volcanic eruptions allow gases (water, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide + other minor gasses) to move from the geosphere to the atmosphere.
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What is weathering?
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Weathering breaks down rocks Erosion transports sediment downhill Earth materials are eroded by: • Wind • Running water • Waves • Glaciers • Gravity eschooltoday.com Earth materials are weathered through: • Physical weathering • Chemical weathering
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Physical weathering is the mechanical breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces Frost wedging (water freezes in joints/cracks and expands)
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Root wedging (roots push grains and rock fragments apart)
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Ventifaction (blowing wind can sandblast rocks) Saltation: bouncing, wind-blown sand grains
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Thermal expansion (changes in temperature cause rocks to expand and contract) • Fires • Daily heating and cooling w/o water Exfoliating granite in desert area
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salt crystal growth (crystals grow in cracks and push grains and rock fragments apart) Honeycomb weathering in sandstone due to sea spray • Salt crystals grow • Crystals can expand and contract due to hydration/dehydr ation, heating/cooling
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Bioturbation (Burrowing animals loosen and aerate sediments; includes root wedging)
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What controls the rate of physical weathering?
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Rates of physical weathering depend on: 1. Local climatic/environmental conditions • Seasonal temperature changes • Seasonal fires • Aridity (salt growth) • Strong, persistent winds • Water availability 2. Rock type, texture, structures • Some rock types are less resistant to weathering than others 3. Biological activity • Burrowing animals and roots break rocks and churn sediments. 4. Time • The longer a rock is exposed, the more it will be weathered
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What is chemical weathering?
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Chemical weathering alters rocks and minerals at Earth’s surface as they react with water, oxygen and carbon dioxide. This produces new minerals and dissolved elements and compounds. 4 main chemical processes lead to chemical weathering: 1. Dissolution/Solution 2. Oxidation 3. Hydration 4. Hydrolysis
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Acid rain/surface water produced when CO 2 , SO 2 or nitrogen oxides combine with water. Acid dissolves carbonate rocks, creating solution of calcium and bicarbonate ions. Results in chemical weathering at surface and underground cave systems called karst . Dissolution/Solution
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Karst landscape near Minerve, Hérault, France Karst
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Karst Waitomo Caves, New Zealand
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Speleothems • Travertine: carbonate rock precipitated directly from solution • Forms dripstones: Stala c tites (from the c eiling down) and stala g mites (from the g round up)
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Although more resistant to chemical weathering, silicates are also subject to dissolution. Both granite obelisks are believed to have been carved 3,500 years ago (1500 B.C.E.). In Egypt In NYC’s Central Park, a gift from the government of Egypt in the late 19th century. What caused the difference in weathering?
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Oxidation occurs when minerals react with oxygen Oxidation leads to rusting and produces iron-oxide minerals like hematite. Pyroxene, amphibole, magnetite, pyrite and olivine are most susceptible to oxidation because they are high in iron. Oxidation
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Hydration occurs when minerals combine with water, changing their structures 2Fe 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O -> 2Fe 2 O 3 . 3H 2 O (Hematite) (Limonite) 3(MgO.FeO.SiO 2 ) + 2H 2 O -> 3MgO.2SiO 2 . 2H 2 O + SiO 2 + 3H 2 O (Olivine) (Serpentine) Hydration
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Hydrolysis is a complex weathering reaction that produces clays, an important mineral in soils. Commonly, potassium feldspar reacts with H + and OH - ions in water to produce clay minerals, potassium ions and silica in solution. Hydrolysis
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Hydrolysis is the main chemical reaction that removes carbon from the atmosphere. Remember: carbonic acid is produced when atmospheric CO 2 reacts with water. When silicate rocks react with carbonic acid, a mixture of clay and dissolved ions are produced. The dissolved ions are carried by rivers to oceans, where they become incorporated into the shells of organisms. If the shells accumulate on the sea floor and turn into stone, they enter into long term carbon storage (but this is a very slow process) Hydrolysis
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Rate of chemical weathering controlled by: • Surface environment (rocks under water or not?) • Exposed surface area (more surface area results in more chemical weathering) • Grain size (related to surface area) • Climate (more weathering in warm, humid climates) • Nature of rocks and minerals (Some rocks and minerals more susceptible to weathering than others-granite vs. limestone; quartz vs. feldspar) More on this next lecture…
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