Battle Analysis Research Project_ Part 3

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Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 1 Battle Analysis Research Project: Part 3 Keriann Lekoski School of Education, Liberty University Authors Note Keriann Lekoski I have no known conflict of interest to disclose. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Keriann Lekoski Email: klekoski@liberty.edu

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 2 The Battle of Khe Sanh, an important chapter in the history of the Vietnam War, unfolded amongst the rugged and treacherous terrain of the Khe Sanh region in Qu ng Tr Province, ả ị South Vietnam. Located near the border with Laos, this remote and strategic location held great significance for both American and North Vietnamese forces. The geography of Khe Sanh, characterized by its dense jungles, rolling hills, and proximity to key transportation routes, played a crucial role in shaping the course and outcome of one of the war's most intense and protracted conflicts. As the battle went on, the geography of the area posed formidable challenges and opportunities, influencing tactics, supply lines, and the determination of those who fought amidst the unforgiving landscapes. (Winters, 2001) Khe Sanh is a triangular shaped plateau within the Annamese Cordillera (or Annamite) mountain range. Each side of this region spans approximately 34 miles. The combat base was located on a steep ravine near the eastern part of the city that led to the Rao Quan river. It roughly stood fifteen hundred feet from sea level. It is surrounded by rainforest canopies, jungle and elephant grass that reach heights of 12 to 16 feet. This made it difficult for troops to be spotted by forces in the air. The base ran along route 9, which connected cities along the coast of Vietnam to towns in Laos that bordered the Mekong river. Dong Tri Mountain is located approximately 1.2 miles north of the base. It is surrounded by toppling hills that would become a key factor in being able to take siege of the village. It is also located near the Ho Chi Minh Trail which grants access to the northern region of South Vietnam. (Winters, 2001) There are several specific hills that play a key factor in the Battle of Khe Sanh. One of these hills is known as ‘Hill 861’, which played a crucial role in the battle. Hill 861 was located to the northwest of the Khe Sanh Combat Base. It overlooked the base itself and provided a massive vantage point to observe and target the activities of both the United States Marine Corps

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 3 and North Vietnamese Army forces. Its elevated position made it valuable for both defensive and offensive purposes. Having control of Hill 861 allowed for better observation of enemy movements and deployments in the surrounding areas. This observation capability was critical for anticipating and responding to enemy attacks, providing crucial intelligence to U.S. Marine Corps commanders. The North Vietnamese Army recognized the strategic importance of Hill 861 and sought to control it in order to position artillery and mortar units for shooting fire at the Khe Sanh Combat Base. From this vantage point, the North Vietnamese Army could target U.S. Marine Corps positions and installations with more accuracy. (Winters, 2001) Whoever had control over Hill 861 had a tactical advantage in terms of controlling the battlefield and putting pressure on their opponent. The North Vietnamese Army's efforts to capture the hill were aimed at gaining this advantage and weakening the U.S. Marine Corps's defensive stance. Hill 861 became a focal point of intense fighting during the Battle of Khe Sanh. The U.S. Marine Corps and North Vietnamese Army forces engaged in fierce battles to gain or maintain control of the hill. The battle for Hill 861 was suggestive of the broader conflict around Khe Sanh and had a significant impact on the overall course and outcome of the battle. Control of Hill 861 allowed for better control over the routes and trails leading to and from the Khe Sanh Combat Base. This made it important for both supplying the base and disrupting enemy supply lines. (Andrew, 2019) Hill 881 North and Hill 882 South had both also played crucial roles in the Battle of Khe Sanh. Both Hill 881 North and Hill 881 South provided commanding views of the surrounding area, including the Khe Sanh Combat Base and its nearby routes, as well as potential enemy movements. Controlling these hills allowed the US Marine Corps forces to monitor and interdict North Vietnamese Army activities effectively. The hills' elevated positions made them ideal

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Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 4 locations for artillery and observation posts. By controlling these hills, the U.S, Marine Corps could effectively direct their fire toward enemy positions and troop concentrations. Observation posts on these hills also provided critical intelligence on the North Vietnamese Army’s movements and plans. Whoever held these hills had a significant tactical advantage. The hills' terrain offered natural defensive positions that could be fortified, making it difficult for the North Vietnamese Army to dislodge U.S. Marine Corps forces once they were entrenched. (Hupy & Koehler, 2012) The hills were located along key routes used by the North Vietnamese Army to transport supplies and reinforcements along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. By controlling these hills, the U.S. Marine Corps could interdict enemy supply lines and disrupt North Vietnamese Army’s movements. Additionally, their location served as a defensive barrier against potential North Vietnamese Army’s attacks on the Khe Sanh Combat Base. The North Vietnamese Army recognized the importance of capturing these hills to increase pressure on the Khe Sanh Combat Base. Controlling the hills would allow them to launch their attacks on the base, weaken its defenses, and potentially pave the way for a larger assault. The battle for Hill 881 North and Hill 881 South was marked by intense and prolonged fighting. The North Vietnamese Army made many attempts to capture these positions, leading to some of the bloodiest and most ferocious engagements of the entire battle. The capture and control of Hill 881 North and Hill 881 South were interrelated with the struggle for Hill 861. The North Vietnamese Army's attempts to control these hills were aimed at gaining a tactical advantage and furthering their broader objectives. (Rottman, 2005) The Ho Chi Minh Trail played a crucial role in the Battle of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War. The trail provided a lifeline for the North Vietnamese forces operating in South Vietnam. It

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 5 allowed them to transport troops, weapons, ammunition, and other essential supplies from North Vietnam to the southern frontlines. Without a steady supply of resources, the North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong would have struggled to sustain their operations, including the Battle of Khe Sanh. The Ho Chi Minh Trail enabled the North Vietnamese forces to reinforce their units and resupply them during the battle. This logistical advantage allowed the North Vietnamese Army to maintain a strong presence and put pressure on the US and South Vietnamese troops at Khe Sanh. The ability to move troops and supplies covertly along the Ho Chi Minh Trail gave the North Vietnamese forces the element of surprise. They could concentrate their forces and launch attacks at strategic moments, keeping the US and South Vietnamese forces off-balance and unable to predict their movements effectively. (Banner & Army Command And General Staff College Fort Leavenworth Ks., 1993) The North Vietnamese may have used the Battle of Khe Sanh as a diversion to draw US and South Vietnamese attention away from the Ho Chi Minh Trail. By engaging in a high-profile battle at Khe Sanh, they could potentially divert resources and attention away from their supply routes and other operations along the trail. The ongoing threat posed by the Ho Chi Minh Trail added to the psychological strain on US and South Vietnamese forces. The knowledge that the enemy had a vast and complex network of supply lines allowed the North Vietnamese to project an image of resilience and determination, which could have affected the morale of their opponents. (Banner & Army Command And General Staff College Fort Leavenworth Ks., 1993) Air support and resupply were critical components of the Battle of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War. It was also an incredibly important factor in determining the outcome of the battle. The remote location of the Khe Sanh Combat Base made it essential to have a reliable means of delivering troops, equipment, ammunition, and other supplies. Airborne resupply operations were

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 6 critical to sustaining the surrounded US and South Vietnamese forces, ensuring that they had the necessary resources to continue the fight. Helicopters, cargo planes, and other aircraft were used to drop supplies directly into the combat base, allowing the defenders to replenish their stocks and hold out against the North Vietnamese Army. (Markie, 2010) Air support played a crucial role in rapidly deploying and redeploying troops to different areas of the battlefield. Helicopters, in particular, were of great importance in transporting reinforcements to the frontlines and extracting wounded or exhausted troops from combat zones. This flexibility and speed were vital in maintaining a strong defensive posture and adapting to the changing dynamics of the battle. The battle required close coordination between ground forces and aircraft for effective close air support. Fighter-bombers and attack helicopters provided cover for ground troops, targeting North Vietnamese Army positions, fortifications, and supply routes. Close air support helped to neutralize enemy threats and create safer conditions for the besieged forces to maneuver and engage. (Kane & Air Command And Staff College Maxwell Afb Al., 1997) Aircrafts provided valuable observations and intelligence-gathering capabilities. Reconnaissance flights and aerial surveillance allowed commanders to monitor enemy movements, identify potential threats, and assess the overall situation. This information was critical for making informed tactical decisions and responding to enemy actions. The sight and sound of aircraft roaring overhead, conducting airstrikes, and dropping supplies had a psychological impact on both sides of the conflict. For the defenders, the presence of aircraft represented a lifeline and a symbol of support. The North Vietnamese Army was faced with the constant threat of airstrikes, which could disrupt their operations, lower morale, and limit their ability to concentrate forces. Air support played a significant role in breaking the North

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Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 7 Vietnamese Army’s siege of the Khe Sanh Combat Base. Intense bombing campaigns targeted North Vietnamese Army’s positions and supply routes, weakening their ability to sustain the siege. This allowed US and South Vietnamese forces to launch successful counter offensives and eventually relieve the pressure on the surrounded base. (Bearden, 2015) Weather conditions played a significant and complex role in the Battle of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War. It was influenced by various weather factors that had both tactical and strategic implications. The battle took place in a remote and rugged area characterized by hills, valleys, and dense vegetation. Poor weather, including rain and fog, could significantly impact visibility and mobility for both sides. Rain could turn roads and trails into muddy quagmires, making it difficult for vehicles and troops to maneuver and reinforcing the importance of air resupply for the besieged US and South Vietnamese forces. Weather conditions, particularly low cloud cover and fog, could affect the ability of aircraft to conduct airstrikes and provide close air support. Low visibility hindered the effectiveness of bombing runs and made it challenging for pilots to accurately target North Vietnamese Army’s positions. On the other hand, periods of clearer weather allowed for more effective use of air power, which was crucial for breaking the siege and supporting ground operations. (Winters, 2001) Adverse weather conditions could disrupt or delay aerial resupply and medical evacuation operations. Helicopters and cargo planes might be grounded due to poor visibility, preventing the delivery of essential supplies and medical care to the combat base. This added to the logistical challenges faced by the besieged forces and affected their ability to sustain the fight and care for the wounded. The weather could impact the construction and maintenance of defensive positions and fortifications. Heavy rain could erode trenches and bunkers, making them less effective in providing cover and protection. Maintaining defensive structures in

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 8 inclement weather was a constant challenge for the defenders. (Winters, 2001) Prolonged exposure to harsh weather conditions, such as rain, mud, and cold, could have a negative impact on troop morale and overall combat effectiveness. Uncomfortable and challenging living conditions could contribute to fatigue, stress, and reduced combat readiness among both US and North Vietnam forces. Weather-related disruptions to transportation and supply routes could hinder the flow of essential resources, such as ammunition, food, and medical supplies. This could impact the ability of both sides to sustain their operations and maintain their forces' fighting capability. (Winters, 2001) The valleys in the vicinity of Khe Sanh had a significant impact on the course and outcome of the Battle of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War. The valleys in the region played a crucial role in shaping the tactics, logistics, and strategic considerations of both sides. The valleys offered natural terrain features that could be used for defensive purposes. The hills and ridges surrounding the valleys provided elevated positions from which US and South Vietnamese forces could establish defensive lines, observation posts, and artillery emplacements. The valleys themselves acted as potential avenues of approach for North Vietnamese forces, and controlling the high ground allowed the defenders to deny the enemy easy access and create defensible positions. (Lydic, 2008) The elevated terrain around the valleys provided better visibility for observation and surveillance. US and South Vietnamese forces could observe enemy movements and activities in the valleys, allowing them to gather intelligence and anticipate the North Vietnamese Army’s actions. This surveillance capability was crucial for detecting potential threats and planning defensive responses.The valleys acted as natural funnels that channeled enemy movements and exposed the North Vietnamese forces to effective aerial attack and artillery fire. The elevated

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 9 positions held by US and South Vietnamese forces allowed them to target the North Vietnamese Army’s troops and equipment as they moved through the valleys. This made it difficult for the North Vietnamese Army to concentrate their forces and launch coordinated attacks without being subjected to heavy firepower. (Lydic, 2008) While the valleys could serve as avenues of approach for the North Vietnamese Army, they also presented logistical challenges. The rugged and densely vegetated terrain could hinder the movement of large formations and vehicles. This made it more difficult for the North Vietnamese Army to bring in reinforcements, supplies, and heavy weaponry, limiting their ability to sustain prolonged engagements. The valleys and the surrounding terrain played a psychological role in the battle as well. The strategic use of defensive positions and elevated observation points allowed the US and South Vietnamese forces to project strength and resilience. On the other hand, the North Vietnamese Army faced the challenge of navigating difficult terrain while under constant threat from airstrikes and artillery fire. As the battle progressed, the valleys could have influenced the strategies of both sides regarding withdrawal and evacuation. The valleys could provide potential escape routes for the North Vietnamese Army, while the defenders could use the elevated positions to secure routes for withdrawal if necessary. (Hupy & Koehler, 2012) The jungle and dense vegetation surrounding the Khe Sanh Combat Base had a significant impact on the Battle of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War. The dense jungle and vegetation provided natural concealment for both sides. North Vietnamese forces could hide their movements, positions, and supply routes within the thick foliage, making it challenging for the US and South Vietnamese forces to detect and engage them. On the other hand, the defenders at Khe Sanh could use the vegetation to create hidden defensive positions and ambush sites,

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Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 10 allowing them to surprise and engage the North Vietnamese Army. The jungle's thick canopy and undergrowth limited visibility for both ground forces and aerial observations. This made it difficult for commanders to gather accurate intelligence on enemy movements and positions. Reduced visibility also hindered the effectiveness of aerial bombing campaigns and artillery fire, as targets might be obscured by the dense vegetation. (Verdoes, n.d.) Navigating through dense jungle and vegetation was difficult and time-consuming. The challenging terrain slowed down troop movements, making it harder for both sides to maneuver and concentrate their forces effectively. This impacted the speed of deployments, troop positioning, and the ability to respond quickly to changing battlefield conditions. The jungle provided an ideal environment for ambush and guerilla tactics, which the North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong were known for. The dense vegetation allowed them to launch surprise attacks, set up booby traps, and quickly disappear into the jungle after engagements. This forced the US and South Vietnamese forces to adopt cautious and methodical approaches to avoid falling into traps. (Lydic, 2008) The jungle had also created logistical challenges for both sides. Moving supplies, equipment, and troops through dense vegetation required significant effort and resources. Resupply efforts, especially aerial resupply, were hampered by the need to clear landing zones and drop zones in the midst of the jungle, increasing the complexity of maintaining the besieged Khe Sanh Combat Base. The environment presented its own set of hazards, including exposure to diseases, insects, and snakes. These environmental factors could weaken the physical condition of troops on both sides and contribute to medical issues that affected combat readiness. The dense jungle and the constant threat it posed added to the psychological stress experienced by troops on both sides. The uncertainty of enemy movements within the vegetation and the

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 11 ever-present risk of ambushes created an atmosphere of tension and heightened vigilance. (Senga, 2012) The isolated terrain surrounding the Khe Sanh Combat Base had a profound effect on the Battle of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War as well. The isolated location of the Khe Sanh Combat Base posed significant logistical challenges for both sides. The base was situated in a remote and rugged area, making it difficult to establish and maintain supply lines. The difficult terrain, including hills, valleys, and dense vegetation, hindered the movement of vehicles and made resupply efforts more challenging. The isolated terrain forced the defenders to heavily rely on aerial resupply, which was susceptible to weather conditions and enemy interception. The isolated terrain had also made it harder for the surrounded US and South Vietnamese forces to receive timely reinforcements. The difficulty of moving troops and equipment through the rugged landscape slowed down the deployment of reinforcements, giving the North Vietnamese Army an advantage in terms of quickly concentrating their forces and launching attacks. (Davis, 1995) The isolated nature of the combat base made it susceptible to a siege by North Vietnamese forces. The North Vietnamese Army took advantage of the terrain to surround the base and cut off supply routes, effectively isolating the defenders. This allowed the North Vietnamese Army to apply pressure on the surrounded forces, attempting to weaken their resolve and force a surrender. The isolated terrain warranted a heavy reliance on air support for both resupply and defensive operations. Airstrips had to be constructed to facilitate the delivery of supplies, reinforcement, and evacuation of wounded personnel. (Davis, 1995) The terrain highlighted the importance of maintaining air superiority and the ability to conduct close air support operations. The isolation of the location of Khe Sanh held strategic

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 12 significance in the broader context of the war. The North Vietnamese Army may have chosen to target Khe Sanh precisely because its isolated nature presented an opportunity to tie down US and South Vietnamese forces, diverting attention and resources from other areas of operation. The isolation and constant threat posed by the North Vietnamese forces surrounding the base had also created a psychological impact on both the defenders and the North Vietnamese Army. The surrounded forces had to cope with the stress of isolation, while the North Vietnamese Army aimed to exploit this isolation to undermine morale and increase pressure on the defenders. (Davis, 1995) Rivers and streams acted as natural barriers that could be used for defensive purposes. The defenders at Khe Sanh could position their forces along these waterways to create additional obstacles for the North Vietnamese Army’s advances. Bridges, crossings, and fords over the waterways could be controlled by the defenders, limiting the options for the North Vietnamese Army to launch coordinated attacks. Rivers and streams had also presented challenges for troop movement and maneuverability. Crossing waterways could be time-consuming, and the North Vietnamese forces would need to concentrate their efforts on identifying and securing suitable crossing points. The water obstacles could slow down the North Vietnamese Army's ability to launch swift and coordinated attacks. (Lydic, 2008) The rivers and streams provided avenues of approach for both sides. North Vietnamese forces could potentially use waterways as covert routes to approach the Khe Sanh Combat Base or launch surprise attacks. On the other hand, the defenders could use boats and other watercraft to move troops and supplies, potentially allowing for more rapid reinforcement and resupply efforts. Rivers and streams could impact the effectiveness of fire support, including artillery and airstrikes. The presence of water obstacles might require careful coordination to ensure that

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Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 13 friendly forces were not inadvertently targeted. Additionally, the jungle growth and dense vegetation along waterways could hinder visibility and targeting accuracy for aerial and ground- based attacks. (Shulimson, Smith & Dawson, 2015) The presence of waterways could affect logistical operations for both sides as well. The defenders might utilize the waterways for transportation of supplies, medical evacuation, and troop movement. The North Vietnamese Army might seek to disrupt these logistical operations by targeting river crossings and attempting to interdict supply lines along the waterways. The rivers and streams contributed to the complex terrain that influenced tactics and engagements. The combination of dense vegetation, rugged landscape, and water obstacles created a challenging environment that required troops on both sides to adapt their tactics to the specific conditions. Ambushes, flanking maneuvers, and defensive fortifications could all be influenced by the presence of waterways. Lastly, the presence of waterways could have additional environmental implications. Wetlands and marshy areas along the rivers and streams could affect troop movement, cause logistical difficulties, and impact the physical condition of soldiers in terms of wetness, mud, and discomfort. (Shore, 2017) The Battle of Khe Sanh stands as a vivid testament to the profound impact that geography can have on the course and outcome of armed conflicts. The remote and rugged terrain surrounding the Khe Sanh Combat Base played a pivotal role in shaping the strategies, tactics, and logistics of both the United States and North Vietnamese forces during this intense struggle. The jungle-covered hills, winding rivers, dense vegetation, and isolated valleys intertwined to create a complex battleground that posed unique challenges and opportunities for both sides. The dense jungle and thick vegetation, while providing natural concealment and ambush opportunities, also hindered visibility, affected aerial support, and turned movement into an

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 14 arduous endeavor. The isolated location of the combat base, surrounded by challenging terrain, imposed logistical burdens that tested the resilience of besieged defenders and constrained the ease of reinforcement. Rivers and streams presented both barriers and potential routes of approach, impacting the ability to maneuver and influence tactics on either side. These geographical features fundamentally shaped the dynamics of the battle, forcing adaptability, resourcefulness, and innovative strategies to navigate the challenges presented. Maps

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 15 American School of Madrid. (n.d.). Libguides: US Ib English-the things they carried: Vietnam War . LibGuides at American School of Madrid. https://asmadrid.libguides.com/c.php?g=680294&p=4849793

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Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 16 Manhhai. (2019, June). Map of north and south vietnam . Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/13476480@N07/48066623681

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 17 References Andrew, R. (2019). Hill Fights: The First Battle of Khe Sanh 1967: Marines in the Vietnam War . Independently published. Banner, G. T., & ARMY COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLL FORT LEAVENWORTH KS. (1993). The War for the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Bearden, R. C. (2015). Risky Business: Reducing Moral Hazard in Airlift Operations . Air University Press, Air Force Research Institute. Davis, M. A. (1995). Armor Attacks in Restrictive Terrain: Is Current US Army Doctrine Adequate?. Hupy, J. P., & Koehler, T. (2012). Modern warfare as a significant form of zoogeomorphic disturbance upon the landscape. Geomorphology, 157, 169-182. Kane, G. C., & AIR COMMAND AND STAFF COLL MAXWELL AFB AL. (1997). Air Power and Its Role in the Battles of Khe Sanh and Dien Bien Phu. Master’s research paper, Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL. Lydic, J. A. (2008). Environment and War: The Impact of Geography, Terrain, and Weather on The Vietnam War Markie Jr, E. J. (2010). A Success in the Use of Combined Airpower (Doctoral dissertation, United States Air Force). Rottman, G. (2005). Khe Sanh 1967–68: Marines battle for Vietnam’s vital hilltop base . Osprey Publishing. Senga, K. (2012). Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the Environment (2nd ed.). Asian Development Bank.

Running Header: Battle Analysis Research Project 18 Shore, M. (2017). The Battle For Khe Sanh . History And Museums Division Headquarters. Shulimson, J., Smith, C., & Dawson, D. (2015). US Marines In Vietnam The Defining Year 1968 . Normanby Press. Verdoes, A. (n.d.). Forestry Development in Quang Tri Province, Vietnam. Forestry and people in South-East Asia , 59. Winters, H. A. (2001). Battling the elements: weather and terrain in the conduct of war . JHU Press.

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