EDUC 240 Lesson 4 Learning+Motivation

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Jan 9, 2024

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EDUC 240 NOTES LESSON 4: LEARNING AND MOTIVATION PRE-TEST: Training motivation is a strong predictor of learning and training outcomes. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. See page 85 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Need theories have important implications for training and development because employees’ needs must be considered in the design of a training program a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. See page 79 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Self-efficacy is positively related to training motivation. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. See page 84 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills, and a change in individual behaviour as a result of some experience. a) TRUE

b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. See page 65 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Extrinsic motivation is the motivation that stems from a direct relationship between a worker and the task. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. This is intrinsic motivation. See page 77 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Social cognitive theory involves three key components: observation, self-efficacy and feedback. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. Self-monitoring, not feedback. See page 74 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Procedural knowledge is related to learning knowledge, facts, and information. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. This is declarative knowledge. Page 68 (Saks & Haccoun, 2010).

STUDY MATERIALS: What is the Link Between Motivation and Learning? In the previous lesson we looked at informal learning. But what drove the individual to seek out this instruction? What was at its root? In order for learning to occur, one has According to Robert Gagné, learning outcomes associated with training can be classified into six general categories: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills, attitudes, and emotional intelligence. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. Does not include emotional intelligence. See page 66 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Conditioning theory suggests that trainees should be encouraged and reinforced throughout the training process. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. See page 73 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). The training effectiveness model shows how training and personal factors influence learning and knowledge. a) TRUE b) FALSE Answer Your answer is correct. Learning and retention. See page 86 in Saks and Haccoun (2010)

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to be motivated in some capacity. Whether it be for advancement on the job, getting a university degree, or pure curiosity, something triggers and sustains the desire to acquire, refine, apply, and retain knowledge. In the clip below, the link between motivation and learning is brought into the universe of video games. A rift has developed in this era of gaming between games that are educational, but boring, and those that are fun, but non-educational. The author will describe tangential learning and o ff ers some suggestions as to how certain elements can be introduced into 'fun' video games in order to make them more educational: Brain Training: Video Games and Tangential learning: Games have more potential as teaching tools than many realize: They don’t even have to be boring to do it - Big divide between games meant for education and those meant for entertainment: - Made by 2 di ff erent industries, gaming industry and the education or simulation industry - Both sides gave up valuable things: fun games gave up opportunity to benefit audiences, educational games gave up being fun - Looking at educational games: - What does it mean to educate? - “Setting out with the goal of teaching someone a specific thing” - this is what educational games do (e.g., math blaster, the typing of the dead, etc.) - While they are games, their primary focus is to teach something - A lot of modern educational games just want to get to the point - sit you down with the promise of a good time but just sit you down with a lesson plan - If we wanted to spend our free time working to learn something, it would be faster and more e ff ective to just pick up a textbook - Fun games: - What does one really get from the experience? - Had fun, but has not expanded your horizons or enriched your life in any way - How can we make games educational without sucking out the fun or substantially adding to development costs? - Answer is to enable learning: to facilitate learning rather than try to educate - Studies show that people assimilate information better when they study topics they are interested in rather than things they are forced to learn for school or work - If we are interested in something we will have an easier time learning it

- The problem with the educational approach is that it tries to “jazz up” a topic that we do not care about rather than trying to get us engaged in the topic and care about it in a personal way - Video games have a huge advantage here: we inherently care about what we are doing when we play games; the enthusiasm is already there, and the game designer just has to channel it - Tangential learning: not what you learn by being taught, but rather it is what you learn by being exposed to things in a context you are already engaged in - Ex: movie 300: Not a film intended to educate, but many people now know who Leonidas was - Film did not educate, but it got people interested and it stirred discussion - People were now exposed to something they did not know they were interested in, which is one of the biggest breakthroughs for learning - Some people may have Googled 300 and ended up at the wikipedia page for the historical battle of Thermopile, while others may have though Leonidas was cool and wanted to learn more about him - This is what tangential learning is all about: the idea that some portion of your audience will self-educate if you introduce them to topics in a context they already find exciting and engaging - Ex: maybe after hours of playing COD, first-person-shooter fans might decide to read about the campaigns of WWII, some Dynasty warrior fans might take time to learn about conflict in Chinese history, rock band can motivate people to learn of eras of music they never knew about, etc. - This is an easy thing for games to do, and it costs nothing to the developer - There are also many ways to do it - Some may wonder if tangential learning is possible without resorting to creating games that are historically themed, and the answer is yes - Ex: consider how many RPG fans who have never gone to temple, know what the Sephiroth is simply because the final fantasy team decided to name a character after it - If just 0.1% of the Final Fantasy audience discovered what it is, then the gaming company just facilitated the learning of 10,000 people - Good ways to put tangential learning into action without resorting to history retellings:

- One way is to set up a small reference into a game’s story and highlight those references by: - 1. Making everything referential (time consuming, di ﬃ cult to pull o ff ) - 2. Can highlight the names of referential things (e ff ective, but tacky) - 3. Subtle approach: Information or quotes implemented during loading screens (dead space, gives gamers something to do while waiting) - 4. Implementing clearly referential objects into the game (clues players in to the fact that other objects in the game might be referential too) (e.g., place obvious reference of excalibur into game, then player might connect dots and think the other swords in game are also references) - More examples of Tangential learning opportunities in action: - In-game indexes: provide players a space to access tangential topics in game - This concept can go even further: rather than spending time, money and storage space developing this type of feature, developers can implement a readily available source of information like Wikipedia links, which can easily be implemented into any computer game and require no development time or disk space - In this example, wikipedia would also allow users to follow their interests from topic to topic in a way that in-game encyclopedias never could - The features may sound slightly heavy-handed or intrusive, but they won’t be if the player never has to use them - Properly implemented things like in-game indexed or encyclopedia links can add depth to the player’s experience without making them feel like you are forcing them to learn something, which is the whole point; enhancing the player experience without getting in the way of the fun - Nothing wrong with old-fashioned fun games - games don’t have to be educational to be worth our time but many designers are missing out on prime opportunities to enrich audiences’ lives - This is a chance for developers to extend player engagement with their product at very little additional cost - games can be more than a mere diversion - By simply exposing players to new concepts, designers can lay the groundwork for learning What is Learning?

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The Basics of Learning: Louis Pugliese gives expert video advice on: What conditions stimulate learning?; How can I help my child be more motivated in the classroom?, etc. - 1. How does our brain perceive events? - Our brain perceives events through the five senses - the sense of sight, smell, touch, etc. - Once we recognize something as familiar or we can compare it to something else in our brain, we begin to organize the information in some way, and that helps us to remember it and that helps us to attend to the stimulus - If something is so unique that we've never felt it or sensed it before, that’s another way that we organize information; we start to create new categories of events and perceptions that we've never had before - 2. How do educational psychologists define “stimulus”? - A stimulus is any information that comes to us through the five senses that could be the sense of touch, smell, hearing, sight, and then the brain processes those stimuli in a way that organizes them either based on what we already know or based on the novelty, the new information, that we strive to reconcile with what we already know Definition: ▪ “The process of acquiring knowledge and skills, and a change in individual behaviour as a result of some experience.” (Saks and Haccoun). ▪ “Learning is an interaction between the individual and the environment that results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour.” (O’Donnell et al., 2009). ▪ Learning is a persisting change in human performance or performance potential as a result of experience. (Driscoll, 2000)

- 3. How do educational psychologists define “practice”? - Educational psychologists define practice as the rehearsal, the repetition of information that we are trying to commit to memory, and we do that in many ways - The knowledge can be procedural knowledge; the way to do something, or the knowledge can be an association between two things - E.g., We put milk in our cereal, we learn that when we are very young - So by doing that over and over and practising, we finally learn that those two things go together - We associate them with a larger scheme that we call breakfast, and the brain organizes information in this way - 4. How do mental stimuli and practice fit into education? - Any stimulus becomes information in our brain and the point of classroom instruction is to help learners to memorize, to commit things to long-term memory; - Whether those are procedures, the way that we do something or that could be what we call declarative knowledge, things that we know (e.g., that Abraham Lincoln was the President during the Civil War) - So that mental stimulus becomes well-set in memory once we've repeated it, and practiced it, and/or rehearsed it many times - 5. How do educational psychologists define “memory”? - Memory is the storage of information in the brain -or in the mind - that’s there for retrieval later on - We can have memory that goes far back to something we haven't remembered in a long time, yet we rehearsed it, or it was so meaningful that it became a long-term memory for us and we were able to organize it and store it long-term

- We can also hold things in memory by practicing them: - For example, if someone gives you a phone number and you're on your cell phone and maybe you're driving and all you can do is repeat it over and over to yourself, by repeating it over and over, you're rehearsing it and while you're rehearsing it, you're holding it in short-term memory - 6. How is memory involved in the education process? - All learning will ultimately involve long-term memory: - We want learners to store new information, useful information, in their long-term memory, which means it has little chance of fading away or being forgotten - To do that is really a long and complicated process for human beings and is really the reason we have school - 7. What conditions stimulate learning? - In the earlier part of the century it was thought that driving around and getting used to your environment would stimulate learning - When a person is satiated or not hungry, a person or organism tends to explore more - In all, when a primary need is met or fulfilled, a person will search for others to explore - 8. How do educational psychologists define “boredom”? - Boredom is basically a term that people use, or learners use, to describe why they didn't stay interested in a particular task or a particular stimuli - But there are two sides of boredom: - The first: - we didn't want to stay with the task because it was too simple, it wasn't challenging, we had better things on our mind to do - The mind wants to be engaged, it wants to be active - If the task is not challenging, we report boredom

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- The 2nd: - On the other hand, boredom can be from just the opposite - Boredom can be when the task is so challenging there is no chance of our success, and that the process, the novelty in the task, any of the new information is such a cognitive challenge we readily break it off because we don't believe we're going to meet with any success at all - So there are two sides to boredom, one is when a task is too easy, and one is when a task is too difficult - 9. How do educational psychologists define “motivation”? - Motivation is an internal drive - Often we look at motivation as the extrinsic things that somebody wants - We learn because we want to get a good job or we go to our job because we want money - But immediately, most of us get up and go to work because we're looking forward to going to work, and immediately most of us attend to a learning task because it has some intrinsic interest - Motivation is often described as the amount that we're invested or interested in the task, how much value it has to us, whether we want to learn to do it, try to do it, and it's also related to whether we think we can do it or not - E.g., I would love to be a teenage rock n roll guitar player, but I don't believe I'll be able to do that, so while my desire to do it is strong, my expectation that I'll be successful at it is very low, therefore my motivation is low - 10. How do educational psychologists define “attention span”?

- Attention span is the ability to fixate or to focus on the features of a new stimulus; meaning: to continue to explore any novel parts of that stimulus, anything new - That stimulus can be something a teacher is talking about, presenting new information - It can be information that is presented visually, in a media sense, or in the form of a picture - It could be also focusing on the steps in a task, that have been given direction clearly to a learner or a student who can then follow the directions for completing a cognitive task - 11. How does attention span factor into learning? - In school, much of what is presented to the children, is presented in terms of direct instruction - That often involves the teacher modelling some sort of behavior, or some sort of procedure for children, such as writing a friendly letter - In order for children to learn, they then have to do this on their own - They have to try it themselves and they have to construct the knowledge piece by piece - They need to be able to focus on the presentation until the presentation is finished - They need to see it from the beginning to the end, or they need to participate in some way from the beginning to the end of the demonstration part of the lesson, so that they can then try doing the steps of the procedure or taking a test of some sort to show that they have mastered the material - So attention is very important - that students are able to see all of the components of the task before they begin to try it themselves Learning Outcomes

Learning outcomes can be classified according to five general categories (Gagne, 1984): Stages of Learning a Skill 1) Verbal information ▪ Facts, knowledge, principles, information (declarative knowledge). ▪ Verbs: state, recite, tell, declare, define. ▪ Example: “Define the term learning.” 2) Intellectual skills ▪ Concepts, rules, and procedures (procedural knowledge). ▪ Categories: discrimination, concrete concept, defined concept, rule, higher-order rule. ▪ Verbs: distinguish, identify, classify, solve, label, specify. ▪ Example: “Identify each instance as an example of procedural or declarative knowledge.” 3) Cognitive strategies ▪ Application of information and techniques. ▪ Understanding how and when to use the information. ▪ Verbs: adopt, create, originate, invent. ▪ Example: “Create and explain your own strategy to solve the following problem.” 4) Motor skills ▪ Coordination and execution of physical movements. ▪ Verbs: execute, perform, demonstrate. ▪ Example: “Hit a ball with a baseball bat.” 5) Attitudes ▪ Preferences and internal states associated with beliefs and feelings. ▪ Verbs: elect, favour, prefer, choose. ▪ Example: “Which learning theory do you prefer and why?”

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Learning Styles Definition: The way an individual gathers, processes and evaluates information during the learning process Stages Example in Reading Declarative knowledge: Learning knowledge, facts, and information. Learn the alphabet, learn conventions about direction of reading (in North America: left- right, top-down) separation of words, purpose of punctuation, rote learning of some words, learn some phonemes. ▪ Attempts at reading involve the conscious application of this knowledge to text. Knowledge compilation: Integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline the task. Word recognition becomes automatic, however over time, a proficient reader is able to grasp whole sentences and even passages at a glance. ▪ This is because the comment sub skills involved in reading have been completely automated and merged together, overcoming limitations of working memory. Procedural knowledge: Learner has mastered the task & performance is automatic & habitual. Learner no longer has to think deliberately and consciously about the sounds associated with letter combinations or the meaning of individual words. ▪ Comprehension increases as working memory no longer has to perform the conscious tasks mentioned above.

- Not all agree with Kolb about the existence of learning styles - E.g., Daniel Willingham believes learning styles do not exist Learning Theories What is a learning theory? A learning theory consists of a set of propositions and constructs that attempt to explain how change in behaviour (learning) is achieved. We will investigate three learning theories: 1. Conditioning Theory (from Behaviourism) 2. Situated Cognition (from Cognitivism) 3. Social Learning Theory Dr. Schmid explains what is meant by a learning theory: - There are three learning theories that we are going to cover: - Conditioning which could also be known as behaviourism - Cognitivism - Social learning - In general, what is a learning theory and in particular, what do these three learning theories bring to the table? According to Kolb (1984), there are four ways in which individuals gain experience (and learn): 1.Concrete experience (CE) 2.Abstract conceptualization (AC) 3.Reflective observation (RO) 4.Active experimentation (AE) An individual’s preferred learning style is a combination of two of the modes of learning: ▪ Converger (AC + AE) = thinking and doing ▪ Diverger (CE + RO) = feeling and watching ▪ Assimilator (AC + RO) = thinking and watching ▪ Accomodator (CE + AE) = feeling and doing

- The classic definition of a learning theory is a permanent or semi- permanent change in behavior due to experience - It is very important that one understands the three components of that definition: - 1. Permanent or semi-permanent means that it is not something that occurs ever so briefly and we forget about. It is something that we retain over a relatively long period of time. If, for example, you look up a phone number in a phonebook, you dial it, you close the book; that is not learning. That is eidetic memory, we simply pull in the information, we retain it long enough, in short term memory, to use it and then we regurgitate, like we do with some exams sometimes - If you call up a particular pizza service often enough you will probably remember the number but that requires repetition - 2. Change in behavior is a critical component of what we are interested in, since in learning theories it is the behavior that results - Behavior comes in two forms: - One is external, how one behaves, whether one can throw baseball, etc. - But behavior also comes in the form of thoughts - In terms of understanding learning, it goes from the inside out: Learning occurs by virtue of us seeing something, understanding it - We do not necessarily ever display an external behavior related to that particular piece of learning - Reflection, for example, thinking about things, creating, etc. is a very high form of learning, is something that comes from within the mind and soul - When we talk about behavior it is very important that we understand behavior as being both internal and external, and everything in between. It is a very complex concept - 3. The third part is due to experience: - We, as psychologists, are cognizant of the fact that humans are pre-wired with dispositions to be able to do certain things - Reflexes and so forth are the building blocks, and that is true for all living organisms

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- We start out with certain capabilities, but learning differentiates between what we are pre-wired to be able to do as a predisposition or capacity and what the environment offers us, which changes and manipulates that capacity - Some people grow up to be Olympic athletes by virtue of constant practice and proper training, but the capacity to do that in a sense is pre-wired - I'm never going to be a Michael Phelps, I just don't have the ability to do that - It is really a complex combination between capacity and the nature – nurture issue: - Nature is what we were pre-wired or have the capacity to do, nurture is what the environment offers us - Learning is that interaction between what we are capable of doing and what the environment in all of its complexity offers us in order to interact effectively within our lives, our contexts, whether that be personal, in the workplace, etc. Learning Theories (cont'd) A. Conditioning Theory ▪ Learning is a result of reward and punishment contingencies that follow a response to a stimulus. ▪ A stimulus or cue would be followed by a response, which is then reinforced. ▪ Strengthens the likelihood that response will occur again and that learning will result

B. Situated Cognition Theory that builds on cognitive approaches to understanding learning. Cognitivism focuses on the structures that are created in the mind, through experience, and that further mediate our interpretation of experience. ▪ These structures are called mental models or schema. ▪ Schema evolve through different processes in which they are tweaked or extended to deal with new experiences, or undergo radical restructuring, if required (“accretion”, “tuning”, “restructuring”). ▪ Schema serve as filters that focus our attention in different ways Dr. Shaw explains schema: - Here is an illustrative, if simplified, example of schema development: - Let's say I want to teach Patrick the concept of ‘dog’: - He has never seen a dog before - I show him a dog, more precisely, a Labrador retriever - I say ‘dog’, pointing to the animal - Patrick observes the creature and forms a mental representation, model, or schema Positive Reinforcement: Negative Reinforcement: Punishment: ▪ application of a positi stimulus after an act. ▪ removal of a negative after an act. ▪ receiving a negative consequence for an u act. Note that both forms of reinforcement (positive and negative) will increase or maintain behaviour. Shaping: Chaining: Generalization: ▪ Reinforcement of eac process until it is mas ▪ Reinforcement of enti sequence of a task. ▪ Conditioned response circumstances differe those during learning

- At this point, Patrick’s schema is quite concrete and limited: - Dog, in a schema, is a brown animal, about 50 pounds, with four legs, brown hair, sharp teeth, long hair, a tail, and the dog is friendly - Now I go for a walk with Patrick and we encounter a boxer: - About the same size as the retriever, but with a stubby tail, white and brown short hair and a flatter face. The boxer is aggressive - Patrick says, “What is that animal?”, “Well, it's a dog, Patrick”, is my response - Patrick now sees that dogs do not all look exactly like the retriever or behave like the retriever he met previously - So now his schema is elaborated to include this new information - Over time, Patrick encounters many dogs: Jackson's, Great Danes, Chihuahuas, etc. - Over time, the properties included in his schema become less like a limited fix at alternatives and more like a set of variables that can take on a range of values - Now his schema includes variables like hair, size, weight, attitude, etc. - These can all take on a range of different values based on what he has experienced - Eventually, the schema is generalized enough that Patrick is even successful in identifying correctly new breeds he encounters as belonging to the dog species of it - But then, Patrick meets a cat - He has never seen a cat before - He looks at the cat and thinks its a new breed of dog - Of course, Patrick is wrong - He has over-generalized his schema - I point out that this is a cat and a cat is different from a dog - The eyes are different, the feet and claws are different - Patrick commences his schema for ‘dog’ and begins to build one for ‘cat’ - This is the process of discrimination So:

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- Learning is seen as a process in which schemas are further elaborated to contend with new experiences • Key processes are “generalization” and “discrimination” (in generalization, a very concrete concept becomes more abstract, and more inclusive; in discrimination, a schema that reflects a broad categorization is narrowed or restricted, to allow more contrast) Cognitive theories are also based on an information processing model of the mind • Key elements in the basic model (there are variants) are short- term, working and long-term memory stores or registers. • Sensory channels provide input to short-term and working memory. These are not permanent storage units, and there are well-established limits on how much information can be held in working memory and manipulated (7 plus or minus 2). • The object is to move information from working memory into long-term memory, which is a stable repository, for future retrieval and use ▪ Situated Cognition builds on the cognitive paradigm • The insight captured in situated cognition is that at the time of learning we also encode aspects of the situation in which we are learning • These become part of our memory structures and affect our ability to successfully apply what we have learned – both facilitating and obstructing performance depending on circumstances. The aspects of the situation that are encoded are conditions of applicability. ▪ If we learn and practice a new concept or skill over and over in the same or very similar situations or contexts, we will find that we are very well able to apply this learning when we are confronted with a similar context. • Our ability to do this will likely exceed that of someone who has learned the principle or concept in a more abstract (less situated, less applied) fashion. ▪ However, it is also true that if we are placed in a novel context where the same learning could be useful, we may be unable to recognize this, and fail to retrieve and apply the relevant schema. ▪ To enable learners to access and apply schema across a wide variety of relevant situations, learning and practice must involve a variety of contexts.

▪ Decontextualized or abstracted presentations of a topic may also lead to greater “wide transfer” of what is learned Learning Theories (cont'd) C. Social Learning Theory Behavioural, Cognitive and Socio-Cultural Theories Behavioural, cognitive, and socio-cultural learning theories differ in the emphasis they place on the environment, the individual, and behaviour. Three Key Components 1. Observati on ▪ Learning by observing the actions of others and the consequences. ▪ Four key critical elements: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Reinforcement 2. Self- efficacy ▪ Judgments people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task. ▪ Influenced by four sources of information in order of importance: • Task performance outcomes • Observation • Verbal persuasion & social influence • Physiological/emotional state “People who hold a low view of themselves will credit their achievements to external factors rather than to their own capabilities.” (Albert Bandura) 3. Self- manage ment Managing one’s own behaviour through a series of internal processes. ▪ Observe personal behaviour, as well as the behaviour of others ▪ Setting performance goals ▪ Assessing personal progress ▪ Rewarding oneself for goal achievement ▪ Concepts: self-regulation, metacognition

▪ Behaviourists will argue that an influence in the environment will have a change on one’s behaviour. Individual differences are not as important. ▪ Cognitivists believe that the individual is key since individuals can perceive the environment differently and their behaviour will differ accordingly. ▪ Socio-cultural theorists focus on the effect of the environment on behaviour, but particularly on the role of the community in shaping one’s behaviour Dr. Schmid provides an overview of the evolution of learning theories and its impact on the design of training: - As a concept, learning theories has gone through a significant evolution: - Over the past century, for example starting around the beginning of the last century, 1900, psychologists wanted to be more scientific - Therefore, the objective of a learning theorist was to find the single unified theory, sort of like physicists, of how people learn - Out of that work we see the development of what we now know as behaviourism - We mentioned before B.F. Skinner, looking at Stimulus-Response Theory: - The idea was that learning at a very basic level is simply the connection of stimuli and responses - They cumulate over a period of time, all of this stuff is recorded in the brain somehow and it just works - But we mentioned before the Black Box: - The big problem with behaviourism was that it was a simplistic approach to how we learn

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- Actually it is quite apt in your neurological level, in a sense that there are synapses in there that are triggered by virtue of stimuli that come in and will respond accordingly - The real difficulty was that as complexity increases, and the first research was done with rats and pigeons and they are not quite as bright as we are, the tasks that they undertook were not quite as complex and variable - Therefore, the theories held well for animals but as you moved into the human realm they fell apart - The complexity overwhelmed their value from an explanatory standpoint - Now this is not to say that that as a learning theory did not contribute to, and does not still contribute to, training and development - In particular, out of that work was the development of the concept of developing behavioral objectives - In other words, when we develop a training program we have certain objectives in mind - We need to identify what the individual needs to do, under what circumstances they need to do it, and the criteria or the standards by which they do it - So we know exactly what they can do - There has to be an action verb, we need to know what kinds of tools and so forth they are provided with, and we need to know how well they need to do it - Those objectives and that whole approach was developed out of behavioral learning theory - That was a huge contribution in the sense that we became more precise with regard to what it is that we expected the learner to be able to do at the end, and that facilitates the evaluation process but also guides the development of the training - So, in a sense, you work backwards - This is what the terminal objective is and then, what are the components?

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- We break the task down into its component parts in order to ensure that the learner accumulates the set of skills necessary to, at the end, undertake that final terminal behavior - And again it gets more complex when you deal with more complex environments - That was a very positive and significant contribution - The other huge contribution to behavioural learning theory was the role of incentives and this directly impacts on motivation - The presence of incentives, either material or otherwise, are critical to the process of learning - Motivation is often referred to as the engine of learning in the sense that if an individual is not motivated to attend to a task they are not going to learn - Gagne, for example, has a series of stages through which learning occurs and the very first stage is attention - One has to attend to the task - You won't attend to a task unless you are motivated to do - So in a sense a precondition of all learning is the need for an individual to be motivated to do so, and Again, that is contingent upon a variety of different variables - What is critical in terms of the learning loop is the fact that motivation is maintained by virtue of positive reinforcers - Again, early learning theories looked at positive reinforcers in the form of food and so forth. Nowadays money is an incentive - But as we have developed our notion of learning, what is becoming more evident is that the more important form of motivation is intrinsic motivation - Extrinsic motivators are things like money - Intrinsic motivators are what really drive the workplace

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- An individual ultimately will perform their job well only when they are intrinsically motivated to do so - It was Social Learning Theory, Alfred Bandura, that in a sense scaled-back the role of behaviourism and opened it up into a more social environment, recognizing the impact of, for example by carious learning - We learn not just by doing things (which is what Skinner had people do), which was stimulus and response, but rather we watch things happen and we learn - That was not factored into early learning theories - Bandura began the process of us understanding learning in a more complex environment, through his Social Learning Theory - That evolved in the mid- to late sixties into cognitive theories of learning: - Cognitive theories of learning decided in a sense that they want to get inside the Black Box - Skinner did not care about what was going on in the brain - all he cared about was what came in and what came out, input, output - Basically Skinner said that what happens in the brain does not matter (and certainly in the workplace to a large extent we feel the same way), the only thing that matters is how a person performs in the end - Cognitive learning theorists decided to look inside the mind - Again, there is a lot of classic work that was done by people like Piaget, etc. which started looking at how visual information differs from verbal information, how written information is different from auditory information - We became much more analytic about how learning occurred inside the mind, not from a neurological standpoint but from a processing standpoint - So if we understand how images, for example, compliment verbal or written information, that can, in fact, enhance the learning process and indeed it does

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- That in turn influences how we develop training materials, to the extent that a trainer amplifies the concept by virtue of the use of images, video, etc. - The process of learning is enhanced, and again, it goes back to the concept we mentioned before, that of being transferred - If you teach information in isolated pockets, the likelihood of transfer is extremely unlikely - People either forget the information or they are unable to apply it to a new setting - If you open up that process, you develop training which is more authentic, which moves actually from cognitive theories to constructivist theories where we start applying learning, not so much as isolated pieces of information - E.g., like the way we used to teach math, you just go through the process: this number is larger than that number, therefore, you do this and not the other thing but rather doing the often hated word problems - You can you can add and subtract, but we give a person a word problem and sadly they cannot do it - The word problem is when you start authentically solving problems that occur in the real world.That adds a level of complexity: the tasks at the basic level are exactly the same, subtraction, addition, multiplication, whatever. But understanding within larger context is where deep learning occurs - Again, we make the distinction between surface learning and deep learning - What we, as trainers, and what we as educators are interested in, is deep learning - Surface learning is lost, it is not transferred, and it is forgotten, or misapplied often - Deep learning has sustainability and transfers to a variety of different settings - According to Dr. Schmid, constructivism is more of a philosophy

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- It is not really a theory of how we learn but it provides us with guidance as to how we need to design learning environments so as to enhance the learning and performance process - Again going back to this whole idea of what we have referred to is Situated Cognition - Cognition occurs within the situation, within a particular context, with certain variables coming into play - The complexity increases over time, in terms of training you start out with the basic skills and then you add complexity in realism to that all embedded within an authentic environment - Constructivism has guided us in the process of developing more complex environments where in a sense the learning process appears to be slower because we do not necessarily acquire the basic skills as rapidly - But we come to understand those basic skills within the larger context and are therefore able to apply them over time - It is more of a pedagogical approach, a framework for the design of learning and performance - From the standpoint of learning theory, one of the significant changes in terms of orientation: - Skinner was looking at the individual as a performer, Bandura looked at it more within a social context - More and more so, and again, going back to this whole idea of us living in a knowledge-based environment, increasingly psychologists recognize that an individual does not work in isolation, but rather the information that they are drawing upon is kind of out there - We are now thinking much more in terms of an individual not necessarily acquiring information just in their head but relying upon the environment, the context, in order to be able to literally understand and do things - In the absence of those stimuli we do not think about things that way - The whole idea is called Distributed Cognition:

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- Factors in the brain where information is distributed across a variety of different circumstances that can include for example the tools that we use - Now we use computer, and oftentimes find ourselves for example googling something if we have a question about it - We now have the internet, unlike the old days (I guess you could go back to the Encyclopedia Britannica now too but who could afford that? Or books? too complicated!). Now we just google it and find the information - We now have almost instant access to an unbelievable amount of information - This leads, once again from a training and learning standpoint, to realization that teaching people absolutely everything about everything is absolutely impossible - A doctor, for example, cannot know everything about medicine and neurology and so forth - They have to have access to sources of information that provide them and guide them in understanding and solving problems - That is why we have more specialization - Again, in the medical field it is a perfect example: You have generalists, you have specialists - Specialists who knows more and more about fewer and fewer things (Just the eyes or just the ears, nose, and throat for example) - The ability to access information has, as little as within the last 10-15 years, exploded and it has changed our conception of, not so much learning as a basic human cognitive process, but rather how we deal with the process of learning and training in, for example, the workplace - It is not just whether a person can do something or know something but rather whether they have access to the information necessary to do the job - They do not necessarily have to know it, but they have to know where to go in order to get the information

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- That, basically, is how our understanding of learning has occurred - We know no more about how people learn now than we did 100 years ago, but we know a lot more about how we can help people to learn and perform because of the evolution for understanding the learning process Adult Learning Theory Dr. Carliner discusses adult education and the differences in educating adults in the workplace as opposed to younger learners in a formal education setting: - In terms of education for adults, there is a whole study of it called andragogy. It sounds a little bit like pedagogy but instead of the ‘ped-‘ which stands for children it is ‘andro’ - There are some general principles about adult education: - They are not 100% different for kids but they are more extremely pronounced when you are dealing with adults - One of the number one things is, you have got to make the material relevant, and the other one is, you have got to acknowledge that these learners have other things going on in their lives - That is really important because when we are dealing with adult learners, one of the things is that they usually are learning in the context of either a job, or some kind of community education course - But it is not their full time job to be a student, whereas when dealing with high school or university students, that is their full time job - They may have other jobs but that is not their real full-time job, it is not the 40 hours a week kind of job 1. Andragogy: 2. Pedagogy: ▪ An adult-oriented approach to lea into account the differences betw child learners. ▪ The traditional approach to learni educate children and youth.

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- So looking at adult education, it is where they are in life and what education is going to do for them, that is probably the primary differential - There is some emerging stuff in neuroscience about the ability of adults to learn and what it takes to get them to learn - When you are dealing with younger people, one of the things we know is that in many cases they do not have a whole lot of prior experience and knowledge - What we teach them may not really contradict too much with that - The older we get, the more experience we have, the more knowledge we have, when we are trying to teach something new it may contradict that - Unteaching what is already there is actually a huge issue - It might not be a complete nonissue with younger students, but it is just less to unteach with them, even high school kids - The older we get, the more we have to unteach - There is also some stuff about brain processes and how they change a little bit as we get older - It starts to limit some extent of the learning but it does not mean older people cannot learn - It just means we have to work a little harder to make it happen - This would differ between dealing with adults, young adults, and also adults from different age groups and different backgrounds, full-time students, part-time students, some working part-time or full-time, others having other responsibilities, etc. - We talk about adult learning. It has been linked with training in the workplace. Here, there are examples where something would have worked in a university setting but not necessarily in workplace or vice versa:

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- In the university setting, one of the incentives that we have for most of our students is that there is a grade at the end, firstly and secondly, if you get enough for those grades that are above a certain level, you get a degree - A lot of the workplace training happens because there is a day, it is a brief thing, one or two days and you get credit for having had shown up but there is no grade at the end of it - Sometimes nobody even knows that you went, so there are different kinds of incentives there - That said, it actually gets more complicated: - Sometimes when you are in the workplace, you are in training not because you chose to but because your boss said you must do it - When someone tells you have to do something your natural inclination is to ask why do I have to be here? I could be doing something better! - The instructor actually has to deal with overcoming that “God, I don’t wanna be here!” syndrome - But if we take a look at university courses: There will be that kind of syndrome in a lot of the required courses, elective courses not as much, but you see it in certain patterns with students - Grades tend to be a bit higher in some of the elective courses and retention in the course seems to be a little bit higher - Another thing that I think is kind of important with the adult education is that it can happen in a lot of different contexts - Most of us think about the workplace, but that is really just one of many - Vocational schools are a huge part of the adult education system - In fact, a lot of people that get degrees in adult education will work in the vocational education system - That might be the CEGEP community college systems across the world, or it may be a lot of public school systems that run adult education units and vocational schools

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- A lot of students in these vocational schools are not traditional students - They are not 17, 18 year-olds who were going to be Automotive Engineers - They may be 30, 40, even 50 year old people, adults within the workforce - For whatever reason they have decided they need to be retrained and are going back to get trained again - It is much more diverse, just in terms of age alone. That is another issue - Another type of situation you have in adult learning is what a lot of people are doing - They call it informal learning but it is not the informal learning that we have been exposed to so far - Here we’re talking about informal learning that occurs in the context of things like museums, public programs, or your church or synagogue or mosque may run some kind of a learning program, a class for three or four weeks - You can even go online with the New York Times and take a class with some of the columnists. Those are called informal learning - general interesting types of courses - The actual interest level is high, but it is low in priority but high in interest, what happens is you may get enrolments but participation may or may not be high - It is not because the students are not interested but it might be because they had to work late that day, or their child was sick so priorities get in the way - Life gets in the way and then you always have a higher priority than the learning - So that is a couple of the differences with adult learning and adult education vs the university setting - One other thing about the university setting: - Our traditional university students at the undergraduate level, in in-person courses and in many online classes, are people who are coming

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directly out of CEGEP, or out of a high-school, depending on what kind of system they are coming out of - They have been full time students, and they continue to be - They have not had that experience of full-time work for a year or more which really would change the way they do things when they go back to class Adult Learning Theory (cont'd) Teaching Children Versus Adults Theories of Motivation Motivation : degree of persistent effort that one directs toward a goal Factor Children Adults Personality Dependent Independent Motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic Roles Student Employee Child parent, volunteer, spouse, citizen Openness to change Keen Ingrained habits and attitudes Barrier to change Few Negative self-concept Experience Subject-centred Problem-centred There are two forms of motivation: Extrinsic Motivation: ▪ stems from factors in the external environment (e.g., grades, money, reward) Intrinsic Motivation: ▪ stems from a direct relationship between worker and task.

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Theories of Motivation (cont'd) A. Need Theories ▪ Needs refer to physiological and psychological desires ▪ Needs are motivational because people are motivated to obtain the things that will satisfy their needs 1) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 2) Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory:

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B. Process Theories Three needs: ▪ Existence needs ▪ Relatedness needs ▪ Growth needs ERG theory differs from Maslow’s in the following ways: ▪ Not a rigid hierarchy of needs ▪ If unable to satisfy a higher need, then the desire to satisfy a lower level will increase 1) Expectancy Theory ▪ Process theory of motivation. ▪ Energy or force that a person directs toward an activity is a direct result of three factors: A) Expectancy: individual’s subjective probability that they can achieve a particular level of performance on a task. B) Instrumentality: subjective likelihood that attainment of a first-level outcome such as an “A” or “B” in this course will lead to attractive consequences that are known as second-level outcomes. C) Valence: refers to the attractiveness of first- and second-level outcomes. D) Effort = Expectancy x (Instrumentality x Valence) 2. Goal Setting Theory ▪ People’s intentions are a good predictor of their behaviour. ▪ Goals are motivational because they direct people’s efforts and energies and lead to development of strategies to help them reach their goals.

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Training Motivation Dr. Schmid compares different learning theories and their effects on motivation, learning and performance: - There is no one right learning theory - Our pursuit of a big unified theory of learning has long since been abandoned - From the standpoint of training, we need to come to appreciate the fact that each one of the theories of learning contributes individually to our overall scope of how to enhance learning and enhance performance Characteristics for goals to be motivational are: • Specific in terms of their level and time frame • Challenging • Must be accompanied by feedback • People must accept them and be committed to them Goal orientation Mastery/Learning goals: Process-oriented goals that focus on learning process. Performance goals: Outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on achievement of specific performance outcomes. Definition: The direction, intensity, and persistence of learning-directed behaviour in training contexts. Personality variables that predict training motivation: ▪ Locus of control ▪ Achievement motivation ▪ Anxiety ▪ Conscientiousness ▪ Self-efficacy

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- Again, we can make the distinction between learning and performance: - Learning is our development of capacity to understand and manipulate, appreciate information and work with it - Performance is actually carrying that out - The two are inextricably intertwined, but in a workplace what we are ultimately interested in is performance, but we have to provide opportunity for that learning to occur - The theory that applies to any given circumstance very much depends upon the nature of the problem - Example: one is dealing with the acquisition of an interface on the computer and there are some modifications that have been made to it: - You work in a bank and they have a new customer service environment - Questions are prompted on screen as you are engaging with the client - That is a very basic, factually based, sort of environment - In other words, there is a right and a wrong way to do it - In fact, behavioral learning theories inform best how we offer that information in the sense that there are explicit right and wrong ways to do things - You carry those tasks out in a somewhat repetitive nature until they are mastered - We work from lack of knowledge of something to mastery through repetition, through practice - But that theory, from a learning standpoint, is supported by a more cognitive or constructivist approach because as mentioned before, constructivism encourages us to create the training within an authentic setting - So rather than simply having the teller or the manager of a bank interacting with someone else, working with this new interface they go through the motions of becoming familiar with that environment, which they need to do

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- At a very basic level, you create them with problem based environments - Training really should occur in as authentic a context as possible - In other words, what you try to do is replicate the circumstances, the conditions surrounding the way that the individual is going to use that tool - Training becomes a much more complex thing: - We have, to a large extent, hopefully abandoned the notion that, for example, a workshop where somebody stands up in front of the room with their PowerPoint presentation showing them “first to do this, then you do this, then you do this” – we know transfer with that approach is very, very low - What is much more effective is if you have individuals or groups of individuals working on problems that include the complexity of whatever it is that they are dealing with - So if the task is very simple and straightforward, behaviors and practice and repetition works very well - As you move towards more complex contexts then you have to ensure that that complexity is factored into the teaching-learning process - You can move a person gradually in steps towards that but coming short of that almost assures that transfer is going to be ineffective - The individual is not going to be able to deal with complexity in that environment - So it is not the learning theory that you adhere to that would govern a particular type of training - It is more the context of the training that would take a reverse engineering process - The other factor is (this is self-evident) the prior knowledge that an individual brings into that environment

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- A task might be very simple and a person does not know it, so then they say we have to acquire by virtue of conditioning or behavioral principles - If an individual has a high level of prior knowledge, then the approach they use has to be very different - This impacts on motivation: - If you try to teach a person something they already know, their motivation to engage in that task is going to be very low - So, from the standpoint of training it is equally important that one understands what the individual brings into that particular environment - In terms of a theory of learning for an individual who already has some prior knowledge, has some other competencies, as best one can, one needs to make sure that the environment includes enough complexity, enough enrichment, so that they are not bored, because then learning is going to be regardless of its potential value - Again, the concept of a theory of learning breaks down if we do not deal with the complexity, and the complexity involves not only the task and the tools that people use, but the knowledge and the attitudes that people bring into that situation - And this also happens much the other way, the idea that if it is not complex enough you will be bored - If it is too complex then you lose motivation as well because of not understanding - Vygotsky talks about a “Zone of Proximal Development”: - The whole idea behind that you find that zone whereby an individual is challenged but not overwhelmed, which is very difficult - Going back to this whole question of learning theories and what is the right one: - Collaborative approaches to learning have been found to be extraordinarily effective (i.e., people working with other people):

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- This is due to the variability that individuals bring into the learning context – Someone in your group might know a lot more about something than I do for instance, but in working as a team of three, I benefit from that person helping me to come to understand what we’re doing or learning because they already know it - In this situation, you actually learned a lot by virtue of someone else’s teaching - Here, the person teaching what they know also comes into a deeper understanding of their knowledge because they must step back and take the leaners perspective, which forces them to become even more understanding of the knowledge they are passing on - Trainers must oftentimes ironically go back to their textbooks and reread the material they are trying to teach in order to take a different perspective - Oftentimes, training is developed by experts - The problem with experts is that they know it already and therefore, they do not think through the process in terms of its component parts - They think of it systemically, but the novice cannot do that - From a learning theory standpoint, complexity and authenticity is important, but what one needs to do is take the perspective of the novice - That is where collaborative approaches to learning help because when you have a heterogeneous group of individuals, they share with one another - It is a misconception, for example, in cooperative learning that the person who knows a lot does not benefit from that - Quite contrary, the person who knows more comes to a much deeper level of understanding through teach-back processes, and that enables them to take someone else's perspective and then transfer it Model of Training Effectiveness

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▪ Training motivation is also a strong predictor of learning and training outcomes ▪ Self-efficacy, cognitive ability, and personality characteristics also have an effect on learning ▪ Attitudes (i.e., job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment) ▪ Key issue for training is ensuring that what is learned is applied in the workplace (in the operational context) ▪ Degree of transfer attained in training is often limited Key Points ▪ The major goal of all training and development is learning ▪ Learning involves a change in behaviour by an individual based on their interaction with the environment ▪ Different learning theories explain this relationship in various ways • Behaviourist vs. cognitivist vs. social learning ▪ Adult learning theory and theories of motivation have implications for the design of training and development ▪ Organizational effectiveness is the end product of a model that involves training, employee characteristics, attitudes, learning and retention, and performance

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POST-TEST: What is the concept that refers to the type of motivation that stems from a direct relationship between a worker and the task? a) Intrinsic motivation b) Extrinsic motivation c) Training motivation d) Motivation to transfer Answer Your answer is correct. See page 77 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). What is the concept that refers to the process of acquiring knowledge and skills, and a change in individual behaviour as a result of some experience? a) Intellectual capital b) Intelligence c) Learning d) Knowledge Management Answer Your answer is correct. See page 65 in Saks and Haccoun (2010).

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What is the concept that refers to the adult-oriented approach to learning that takes into account the differences between adult and child learners? a) Pedagogy b) Andragogy c) Asynchronous d) Synchronous Answer Your answer is correct. See page 76 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). What is the concept that refers to the conditioned response that occurs in circumstances different from those during learning? a) Generalization b) Chaining c) Shaping d) Observation Answer Your answer is correct. See page 73 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). What type of goal is process-oriented and focuses on the learning process? a) Process goals b) Distal goals c) Mastery goals d) Proximal goals Answer

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Your answer is correct. See page 82 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Using Alderfer’s theory, what is the need that is similar to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization needs? a) Existence needs b) Growth needs c) Learning needs d) Relatedness needs Answer Your answer is correct. See page 79 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). What type of motivation focuses on the direction, intensity, and persistence of learning-directed behaviour in training contexts? a) Intrinsic motivation b) Extrinsic motivation c) Training motivation d) Motivation to transfer Answer Your answer is correct. See page 83 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). Using Gagné’s Classification Scheme, which learning outcome has to do with procedural knowledge? a) Verbal information b) Motor skills c) Intellectual skills d) Cognitive strategies Answer

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Your answer is correct. See page 66 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). In the Model of Training Effectiveness, what part of the model flows into Individual Behaviour and Performance? a) Self-Efficacy b) Learning and Retention c) Cognitive Ability d) Training Motivation Answer Your answer is correct. See page 85 in Saks and Haccoun (2010). . Which of the following is NOT a learning style? a) Converging b) Assimilating c) Reflecting d) Accommodating Answer Your answer is correct. See page 70 in Saks and Haccoun (2010).

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What is the concept that refers to the way in which an individual gathers information and processes and evaluates it during the learning process? a) Declarative knowledge b) Knowledge compilation c) Procedural knowledge d) Learning style Answer Your answer is correct. See page 69 in Saks and Haccoun (2010).

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EDUC 240 Lesson 4 Learning+Motivation

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