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Fundamental 3 Driving Force How do we predict the tendencies of matter? Pre-Activity Questions 1. Review F.2 Counting Configurations Model 3. In order to determine the number of different combinations of 3 heads and 2 tails, explain which equation should be used and how. Model 1 Expansion A lattice model is a way to divide a continuous space into a distinct number of discrete “sites.” The following is a one-dimensional model representing a gas of N = 3 particles free to distribute in a volume of increasing size proportional to the number of available lattice sites that can be occupied or not. O JCHee < OO Critical Thinking Questions 1. How many lattice sites are represented in Case A? 2. Based on the description of Model 1, identify the sample space and total number of outcomes available to each lattice site.
30 FUNDAMENTAL 3. DRIVING FORCE 3. Determine the multiplicity for each case illustrated in Model 1. Provide justification for your team’s answers. 4. Based on experience, 1s it more likely to find the gas particles confined to a small region of space like Case C or a spread out to occupy the largest volume like Case A in Model 1? 5. If an even larger volume was available, what would you predict the gas to do? 6. If the volume or number of sites continued to increase would the multiplicity increase /decrease or remain the same? Explain. 7. Based on this simple model, describe the driving force of a gas to spread out into a larger volume in terms of multiplicity. Use complete sentences. Model 2 Mixing The following is a one-dimensional model of eight lattice sites divided by a permeable wall separating four sites on the left and four sites on the right. Each lattice is occupied by four black particles and four white particles. - D@0DIIOD < 000 permeable wall —»
MODEL 3! EXTREMUM PRINCIPLE 31 Critical Thinking Questions 8. Based on experience, describe what your team would predict to be the most probable (i.c., equilibrium) composition of black and white particles on each side of the wall. 9. Based on the description of Model 2, identify the sample space and total number of outcomes for each lattice site. 10. What is the relatonship between the total multiplicity of a particular case and the multiphaity of each unique composition on the left side, Wi.4 and the right side Wi of the barrier? 11. Determine the multiplicity for each case illustrated in Model 2. Provide justification for your team’s answers. 12. In view of your answer to CTQ 11, what is the relationship between multiplicity and the most probable outcome described in CTQ 8? Model 3 Extremum principle Consider a box divided into two halves containing N particles. Each box can contain more than one particle, and any given particle is equally likely to be in either the left half or the right half of the box.
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32 FUNDAMENTAL 3: DRIVING FORCE Critical Thinking Questions 13. Assuming all the particles start in the left side of the box, what does your team predict will be the natural tendency of the particles over time. Explain. 14. Based on the description of Model 3, identify the sample space and total number of outcomes available to each particle. 15. For N = 4, what is the total multiphcity (configurations) possible? 16. Identify all unique compositions possible for N = 4. Determine the multiplicity for each unique composition and confirm that the total multiplicity is consistent with CTQ 15. 17. Sketch a plot of the multiplicity (permutations) for each composition as a function of the number of particles in the left box, 1. 18. In general, describe the relationship between multiplicity and the direction or driving force of a system towards the most probable state.
MODEL 3: EXTREMUM PRINCIPLE 33 Exercises 1. Consider a one-dimensional ideal gas consisting of 10 particles each of which has the same speed v, but velocity +v. The velocity of each particle is independent. a) What 1s the probability that all the particles are moving in the same direction? b) If the net velocity of the system is —4v, what is the probability of this system? ¢) Identify the most probable composition (number or particles moving left and number of particles moving right). Justify your answer. 2. Consider two systems A and B each with 10 particles. Each particle has one of two possible quantities of energy, ¢ = 0 or ¢ = 1. Suppose the total energy to be shared between the two systems i1s E = E5 + Eg = 4. Describe the most probable distribution of energy among the 10 particles for each system. Justify your answer.
40 ChemActivity 4: Polar Bonds, Polar Reactions PART B: HY TRANSFER REACTIONS (What happens when intermolecular forces between two molecules are super strong?) Model 6: Hydrogen Bonding The dotted lines in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 represent the strongest type of dipole-dipole attractive force called a hydrogen bond. A typical hydrogen bond 1s about 5% as strong as a typical covalent bond. Hydrogen bonds will normally form only between a [lone pair on N, O, or F| and an [H en N, O, or X| For example: IN: =~ - H R g 'H\o/g\o.. ../H .........
./: NRZ fi x \c/ H ‘- .O I' .. Not” g RN ) PN !! Critical Thinking Questions 14. (E) According to the rules in Model 6, is the dotted line marked with an Xa hydrogen bond? 15. Construct an explanation for why an H attached to an N or O atom can participate in a hydrogen bond (H-bond) while an H attached 10 a carbon atom cannot. 16. Circle each molecule below that you expect to be capable of hydrogen bonding to itself :fi: 3fi: o H; oe Ni N AN =S HocH, h f " f e f, : 2 0 H c: c " 2 . C CH, A A4 e G2 W o e 0 N H)C S) H) 17. An “hydrogen-bond donor™ has an H suitable for hydrogen bonding. An “hydrogen-bond acceptor” has a lone pair suitable for hydrogen bonding. Only structures in the top row of the previous question are both (and therefore H-bond to themselves!) Label structures in the bottom row with H-bond donor, H-bond acceptor, or neither, as appropriate. (Note that only one structure i1s neither )
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ChemActivity 4: Polar Bonds, Polar Reactions Model 7: Ordinary vs. Extreme H-Bond Donors and Acceptors Bond formation and bond breaking for the H™ transfer reaction shown on the left side of Figure 4.10 Recall that an ordinary H-bond donor will typically share an H with an acceptor, but this H will remain covalently bound 1o donor, as shown in Figure 49. 2 the R 3 :.CIQ—H---'-‘E"-"-’--:(JQ—H Donor Acceptor Figure 4.9: Ordinary H-bond Donor and Acceptor An gxtreme H-bond donor or acceptor will transfer an H' (€ an 1 with no electrons) from donor to acceptor. On the next page you will be asked 1o memorize six common extreme H-bond donors and a working definition of an extreme H-bond acceptor. For now, some examples are provided below. ordnary Extreme i o~k Ruction*l} ; ® .. . : H,0——H :Cl: Fe = Reactants= = == Products == : HaNT H—OR Extreme ordinary . Fbond scospkr ... i o f Reaction 2 + . - - PO - HN——H :OR | Figure 4.10: H* Transfer Reactions Involving an Extreme H-bond Donor or Acceptor (Reaction 1) can be represented using two curved arrows marked a and b: Arrow a says: “One lone pair of clectrons on the O (of H,0) forms a new bond to the H (of HCI).” Arrow b says: “The electron pair bonding H to Cl breaks from H and becomes a lone pair on Cl © Critical Thinking Questions (E) For Reactions | and 2 in Figure 410, label any bond that i1s “broken” among the reactants and any bond that 1s “new” among the products. I8. (E) True or False: An extreme H-bond donor can react only with an extreme H-bond acceptor. Add curved arrows to Reaction 2 in Figure 4.10 showing bond formation and bond breakage. By convention, organic chemists draw their curved arrows from the perspective of the electrons. Write a sentence describing what each of your curved arrows says about the electrons in Rxn 2. 41
42 ChemActivity 4: Polar Bonds, Polar Reactions Memorization Task 4.1: By the start of next class, memonze the contents of Tables 4.3 and 4.4 and the defimtions of a strong acid and a strong base on this page. Strong Acid (e.g., H-—Cl) easily donates an H" (previously called an extreme H-bond donor). Table 4.3: The Six Strong Acids Used in this Book Hydroiodic | Hydrobromic | Hydrochlonc | Sulfuric Acid Nitric Acid* Hydronium Ion.I Acd Acid Acid (when R = OH) (when R = H) : fi: /M 0 M ® T—H Br —H Cl—H R=——8§ =0 : e.. I / R—O—H .. . ™ II .. :9—&—.0. . l 0: R Strong Base (c g, HoN © ) easily accepts an H” (previously called an extreme H-bond acceptor) Strong Base = molecule with a [lone pair] and [-1 formal charge| localized® onan H, C, N, or O atom. Table 4.4: Examples of Common Strong Bases Most strong bases are of the form of one - ) ) of these generalized structures - i R—OQ R—T : R—?—R where R=H or alkyl group [CoHa] mycnds fon “ B = Oxygen strong bases are most common. H—0: H, .0 CH, o hydrowce /C -0: H-‘c\c—ae' Examples (and names) of RO = bases O HC e Vol _) HSC-Q " H,C methoxioe tert-Dunoxde . S, H—N HC—N MOl N CHy © | | cH~ CH Examples of R;N ~ bases 2 M CHsCHs | | CHy CHy O . Hz H—C —H W ¢ CcH Examples of R,C © bases = | \C”z/ \az/ 3 M * A wopic for next chapter: The -1 formal charge of nitric acid is not “localized” on O, s0 it is not a strong base! Critical Thinking Questions 22. (E) For cach strong acid in Table 4.3, circle the H that can be donated. 23, (E) Label each of the following as strong acid, strong base, or neither. R » =) 10 10 - o MO O ® HC—§—C HO—S—C( C—CH, HNO AN fi f Il N\ ' HyC CH, ‘ ‘ 10¢ 10: HC—OCH
ChemActivity 4: Polar Bonds, Polar Reactions 43 Model 8: Conjugate Acid-Conjugate Base Pairs Most any molecule can serve as an acid (it ssmply must have an H), and any molecule with a lone pair can be a base. Most (except those defined above as strong) are weak acids and weak bases. General Definitions: acid = any molecule with an H (¢.2., H—Z) € gencralized form, where Z can be any atom or group. Examples of weak acids: H,O, HOR (alcohols), HF, 'NHR; (ammonium ions), H,CO;, many others. base = any molecule with a lone pair (¢ g, :Z or :Z © ) € weak base can be neutral or negalive Examples of weak bases: H,O, HOR (alcohols), NR (amines), NaHCO,, ROR (ethers), many others. (Later we will add “or any molecule with xelectrons ™ 1o owr definition of a base - don 't worry about this for now.) H—Zand Z© arca conjugate acid-conjugate base pair (as shown below). H,0® and H -0 are another conjugate acid-conjugate base pair. H GE— \ ., @l . H—2Z /'0 1 :? /0 4 W Ny W N\y conjugate acid of -Z conjugate base of H,0* conjugate base of HZ conjugate acd of water Figure 4.11: Conjugate Acid-Conjugate Base Pairs Critical Thinking Questions 24. (E) What is the molecular formula of the conjugate acid of water? 25. Draw the structure of the conjugate base of water. (Note that it does not appear in Figure 4.11) 26. DoesC1© havea conjugate acid? If so, what 1s 1t? ... a conjugate base? If so, what 1s it? 27. Draw the conjugate base of CH, (methane). 28. For the previous four questions, label each molecule that appears in the question or your answer as strong acid, strong base, weak acid, or weak base
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44 ChemActivity 4: Polar Bonds, Polar Reactions Model 9: Energy Diagrams Chemusts chart the total energy of a chemical reaction vs. ime using a graph called an energy diagram. Think of an energy diagram as a side-view (cross-section) of a mountainous landscape. By analogy to gravitational potential energy (an object at high altutude has farther to fall), the tops of the peaks are the high Potential Energy (P.E.) points of the reaction. The valleys are the low P.E. points. A A w m o e e | & 2 e Ii.l w S z 5| £ = - Strting Point - Progress of Reaction 3 (ime) Progress of Reaction 4 (bme) Figure 4.12: Overall Favorable (downhill) Reaction Figure 4.13: Overall Unfavorable (uphill) Reaction. Memorization Task 4.2: Memorize the following energy diagram conventions... e alP Lk change* (AH) from high to low i1s considered “downhill” or “negative (=) or “exothermic” e aPE change* (AH) from low to high is considered “uphill” or “pesitive (+)” or “endothermic” *Organic chemists often use change in heat (AH) as an estimate for the change in total P.E. for a reaction (AG). e Making a bond is downhill, negative (), exothermic = energy is released by molecule ¢ Breaking a bond is uphill, positive (+), endothermic - energy must be added to molecule Critical Thinking Questions 29, (E)Is Reaction 3, taken as a whole from Point A 1o Point C, endothermic or exothermic? What about Reaction 47 [Label both Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13 with one of these two terms. | 30. According to the conventions above, what is the sign (+ or —) of the P.E. change (A/) for Rxn 3? 31. Draw an arrow on Figure 4.13 representing AH,,, .. (Hint: study the AH,,, ; arrow 1in Figure 4.12) 32. Consider the process shown at right using a curved arrow: = a. Draw a + or — above this curved arrow indicating the sign of the energy ‘F, H change associated with this process, and briefly explain your reasoning. b. Is breaking the H—F bond uphill or downhill in energy? .. favorable or unfavorable? c. Is thus arrow more likely associated with Fig. 4.12 or Fig. 4.137 33. Adda + or - above each curved arrow in Figure 4.11 to show the sign of the energy change.
Related Questions
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word or phrase.
1. The average kinetic energy of a gas molecule depends only on its _____.
2. Above it's ____ temperature, it is imposible, under any any pressure, for a substance to exist in its liquid phase.
3. For a crystalline solid, the smallest repeating structure is referred to as the _____ ______. (Two words)
4. The scattering of light off colloidal particles is called the _____ effect.
5. A solution in which there is more dissolved solute than in a saturated solution is known as a(n) ______ solution.
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Introduction
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Answer questions 4-5
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Write True if the statement is true otherwise, write false.
1. According to the kinetic molecular theorv of matter, the higher the temperature
of a substance, the greater the kinetic energy of the particles compriSing the
substance.
2. According to the kinetic molecular theory of matter, the faster the particles
Comprising a substance is movina, the greater the kinetic energy of that substance
is.
3. Relative to the other two states of matter, matter in solid state has the weakest
attraction between atoms.
4. Dispersion forces are exclusively experienced by nonpolar molecules.
5. To undergo a phase change from solid to liquid, the intermolecular forces holding
the atoms, ions, or molecules in a substance together must be overcome.
6. Among the different types of intermolecular forces that could be experienced by
a substance, dipole-dipole forces are the weakest.
7. The farther apart the atoms, ions, or molecules in a substance are, the stronger
the intermolecular forces…
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help please answer in text form with proper workings and explanation for each and every part and steps with concept and introduction no AI no copy paste remember answer must be in proper format with all working
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Aspirin has a higher molar mass compared to salicylic acid, however aspirin melts at a lower temperature than salicylic acid. Provide a brief explanation for this
observation.
Table 1
Compound:
Formula:
Salicylic Acid
C;H6O3
Aspirin
C9H3O4
Molar Mass:
138.12
Melting point:
Ka
158-160°C
1.08 x 10³
180.15
140-142°C
2.72 x 10$
pKa
Solubility (g/100ML)
2.99
4.57
0.18
0.25
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2. Why does the temperature of a mixture of ice and water remain constant during melting and freezing?
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Part A. Use these facts on the heating and cooling curve of water in answering the following activities.
Direction: Analyze each of the following statements whether it describes the heating and cooling curve of water. Write TRUE if the statement is correct but if it’s false, change the underlined word or group of words to make the whole statement true. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
3. The melting point of a solid and freezing point of a liquid is the temperature where the solid and liquid phase of water co-exist at equilibrium.
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Answer number 4 only
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Please look at this. There are 2 questions I need help with. Can someone please answer them?
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12)
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Choose the best answer for the total amount of heat (joules) released by cooling 150.0 gms of water at 85.0°C to ice at 0.0°C.
-50,728 J
-53,346 J
-392,346 J
-103,446 J
Question 20
What volume in milliliters of 4.00 M HNO3 is needed to prepare 128 mL of 0.100 M HNO3?
acer
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bic
be
15. Assume that the particles in table salt (NaCl) vibrate
just as forcefully as the particles in lead (Pb). Explain
why table salt remains a solid at 500 °C while lead
exists as a liquid.
16. When thermal energy is being removed from a
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Consider the melting points of the substances below (see figures for two compounds). Explain the trend in melting point using your knowledge of intermolecular forces. (In the structures below, carbon is black, hydrogen is white, and oxygen is red.)
Substance
Melting Point (°C)
Molar Mass (g/mol)
Cl2
−102
71
Ethyl formate (CH3CH2OCHO)
−80
74
Propionic acid (CH3CH2COOH)
−20
74
Br2
−7.2
160
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In addition Noble Gas atoms, London forces exist between molecules. Use London forces to explain why F2 and Cl2 are gases, Br2 is a liquid, and I2 is a solid.
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Which statement best describes the structure of water and its nature as a solvent?
O The water molecule is polar and will dissolve polar molecules, such as sugar.
O The water molecule is polar and will not dissolve ionic compounds, such as salt.
The water molecule is nonpolar and will dissolve polar molecules, such as vinegar.
O The water molecule is nonpolar and will dissolve nonpolar molecules, such as oil.
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- Write True if the statement is true otherwise, write false. 1. According to the kinetic molecular theorv of matter, the higher the temperature of a substance, the greater the kinetic energy of the particles compriSing the substance. 2. According to the kinetic molecular theory of matter, the faster the particles Comprising a substance is movina, the greater the kinetic energy of that substance is. 3. Relative to the other two states of matter, matter in solid state has the weakest attraction between atoms. 4. Dispersion forces are exclusively experienced by nonpolar molecules. 5. To undergo a phase change from solid to liquid, the intermolecular forces holding the atoms, ions, or molecules in a substance together must be overcome. 6. Among the different types of intermolecular forces that could be experienced by a substance, dipole-dipole forces are the weakest. 7. The farther apart the atoms, ions, or molecules in a substance are, the stronger the intermolecular forces…arrow_forwardhelp please answer in text form with proper workings and explanation for each and every part and steps with concept and introduction no AI no copy paste remember answer must be in proper format with all workingarrow_forwardAspirin has a higher molar mass compared to salicylic acid, however aspirin melts at a lower temperature than salicylic acid. Provide a brief explanation for this observation. Table 1 Compound: Formula: Salicylic Acid C;H6O3 Aspirin C9H3O4 Molar Mass: 138.12 Melting point: Ka 158-160°C 1.08 x 10³ 180.15 140-142°C 2.72 x 10$ pKa Solubility (g/100ML) 2.99 4.57 0.18 0.25arrow_forward
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