KNES 251 Final Review

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KNES 251 Final Review KNES 251 Midterm One Study Guide Lecture One Important Topics (Basics of Neuroanatomy)  Terminology: normal anatomical terms but to reference to the brain pay attention to o Rostral-towards the beak o Caudal-towards the tail o Ventral-anterior o Dorsal-posterior  Anatomical Planes for the Brain o Frontal o Sagittal o Transverse  Divisions of the Nervous System o CNS, PNS, Afferent (entering the spinal cord) and Efferent(exiting the spinal cord  Spinal Cord o Sections-cervical, thoracic, lumbar o Why are there bumps? That’s where nerves for the limbs are o Spinal Cord  Where does the spinal cord receive and exit info.? o Info enters in the dorsal root and exits the ventral horn  What is a group of neuronal cells bodies called in CNS vs PNS? o CNS-nucleus o PNS-ganglion  What is a dermatomes? o An area of the skin supplied by neurons that come from a specific spinal signal  What are parts of the brain stem? o Midbrain, Pons, medulla oblongata  What part switches info from side to side? o Caudle medulla  What is the function of the: o Cerebellum-fine motor, balance, error predictions/calculations o Thalamus- relay center o Cerebral Cortex-2mm, higher order control, thinking  What part of the neuron send info vs the part that receives info? o Axon sends, dendrites receive  What are Glial Cells functions? o They are helper/supporting cells for neurons, there are different types depending on where they are

Lecture Two: Neurophysiology  Extra vs intercellular fluid concentrations for sodium, calcium, potassium, and chloride? o Sodium is concentrated outside the cell o Calcium is concentrated outside the cell o Potassium is concentrated inside the cell o Chloride is concentrated outside the cell  Difference b/w current and voltage?  How is action potential generated in broad terms? o A small amount of sodium enters the cell to get it to threshold o Na voltage gated channels open and Na flows in to make the membrane potential more positive, they become inactive and K channels are open(they are slow to open and close, but they are opened at the same time as Na it just takes longer) and leak channels allow K to flow out of the cell o Since K is more permeable now the membrane potential is brought closer to the Nernst potential of K which is about -84mV which is more negative than normal resting potential  Types of transmembrane protein channels? o Voltage gated o Mechanically gated o Thermal gated o Ion channels o Leak channels o Ligand channels  How does ligand-gated channels work? o A ligand attaches to the bonding site on the channel to open it  Example if ACh during muscle contractions  What is the electrostatic force? (Coulombs law) o is an attractive or repulsive force between particles depending on their electrical charge o + is repulsion o – is attraction o The farther they are apart the weaker the force o The closer they are the stronger the force  Chemical gradient force? o Due to the random motion of particles to become equally distributed  Move from high to low concentration  When are the two forces opposite and equal? o When they reach electrochemical equilibrium

Lecture Three: Neurophysiology  What are leak channels? o They are channels that are always open and only have one state  Nernst Equation o Is only for one ion o Remember for anion switch so not taking – log  Steps of action potential? o A small amount of sodium enters the cell to get it to threshold o Na voltage gated channels open and Na flows in to make the membrane potential more positive, they become inactive and K channels are open(they are slow to open and close, but they are opened at the same time as Na it just takes longer) and leak channels allow K to flow out of the cell o Since K is more permeable now the membrane potential is brought closer to the Nernst potential of K which is about -84mV which is more negative than normal resting potential  Goldman’s equation calculates all but takes what as well? o It takes permeability of each ion into account Lecture Four: Action Potential and Synapse  How does action potential spread? o It spreads like a wave down the axon o What is special about sodium gates?  They become inactive so that action potential can only propagate in one direction  How does passive diffusion in a cell work? o When injected into the center of an axon it decays exponentially o Is it fast?  Yes compared to active current flow(think about the graph where saltatory conduction slide) o Can it power an entire action potential?  No because it decays exponentially so it can’t reach the entire cell  How does myelin change the axonal conduction? o It jumps from node of Ranvier to the next, and the ions just diffuse passively underneath the myeline but there are only voltage gated channels on the nodes o What is saltatory conduction?  It is the fast, slow, fast, slow jumping of the action potential on the axon  What are the steps of Synapse? o Neurotransmitter is synthesized, and stored in vesicles o Action potential invades the presynaptic terminal o Depolarization cause Ca voltage gated channels to open o A rush of Ca enters the presynaptic terminal o Ca cause the binding of vesicles with the presynaptic membrane

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o The binding of Ca to the snare complex cause the release of neurotransmitter by exocytosis into the synaptic cleft o The neurotransmitter binds with the receptor on the postsynaptic membrane and opens its channels o The postsynaptic membrane will either than be excited or inhibited o Removal of neurotransmitter by glial cells or enzyme degradation o Retrieval of vesicular membrane from plasma membrane  What is the SNARE complex? o Is a complex of protein that are activated with Ca and cause docking or fusing of the vesicle to the membrane and the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft Lecture five: Synapse and Neurotransmitters  Difference b/w reversible and irreversible antagonists? o Reversible unbinds with the voltage gated Na channels where as irreversible ones do not  Post synaptic Potential: o What happens after the neurotransmitter is released into the cleft?  Binds with ligand gated, and can be excitatory/inhibitory. o How does the glutamatergic synapse and glutamate work?  Glutamate excitatory, makes resting potential closer to the threshold  Na release o How does GABA work?  Chloride  Inhibitory  Farther from threshold  What is summation? o Postsynaptic potential add together to make it closer or further from the membrane potential  What is a neuromuscular junction? o Synapse b/w motor neuron and muscle spindle  What is an alpha motor neuron? o Ventral horn, connects to muscle  How does Acetylcholine work? o Binds with ligand channels and allows both Na and K in but mostly Na  What is endplate potential? o Decays exponentially as it goes further from center of junction Lecture Six: Motor System  Neuromuscular Junction: o Is the resting potential of a muscle more negative than a neuron?  It is more negative

 How does actin and myosin work and how do they look? o Actin is thin and myosin thick o Myosin has free head  What is excitation contraction coupling? o Steps of synapse, Ach is released and it binds with ligand gated Na and K channels to open but only allows mostly Na in o Then this sends action potentials down the sarcolemma and then down the t tubules o This cause the release of Ca from the terminal cisterna from the sarcoplasmic reticulum o The Ca then binds with tropine which moves the tropomyosin which reveals the actin binding site and this allows for the free head of the myosin to bind with and pull to contract and shorten o This will continue as long as ATP and action potentials are still present  What are the steps to skeletal muscle contractions?  What are the different types of muscle fibres? o T1(SO): Slow oxidative, slow fatigue o T2 A(FO): fast oxidative, o T2 AB(FOG): fast oxidative glycolytic o T2 B(FG): fast glycolytic  Motor unit vs pool o Unit is one neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates o All motor units in a muscle  Five types of twitch contractions? o Depends on Ca amount Lecture seven: motor system and electromyography  What are the different distributions of muscle fibres of a motor unit for o S- small cell body and axon, more excitable but slower action potential, innervates less muscles o FR- medium, everything o FF- large axon and body, connect action potential and have more leak channels so harder to reach action potential threshold, innervates more o How do twitch contractions work for this? o Larger have more force fatigue fast o Small less force, more resistant to fatigue  What is discharge rate? o Action per/sec (Hz) which relates to amount of force  How are small, medium, and large motor units recruited and derecruited? o Small is activated first and turned off last, than medium which are turned on seconded and tuned off second, large is turned on last but turned off first  How are motor units recruited? o Depends on the force needed

 How is surface electromyography done? o Electrodes on belly parallel to the muscle gradient Lecture Eight:  What does rectify and smooth surface EMG correlate to? o Relates to the force, better for overall activity  What does indwelling EMG measure in relation to the structure? o It measures specific motor units but only a few so not good for force measurements cause can’t get an average  How does training effect EMG amplitude, what does it change? o Can change the size and force Lecture Nine:  What is an intrafusal fibre? o no force o bag and chain type  What is an afferent neuron? o Info to the spinal cord and brain about sensory input, as stretch activity  What is an efferent neuron? o Send info to muscle spindles to produce force and muscle contractions  What is a gamma motor? o Innervates with intrafusal fibres  What is a sensory ending? o Sense the stretch to open mechanically gates channels  What is a central region? o Doesn’t contract  What is a capsule? o Tissue surrounding the intrafusal fibres  What is an extrafusal fibre? o Produces force and causes contractions parallel to intrafusal fibres  What is a primary afferent and what does it include? o They wrap around all intrafusal fibres, includes bag type and measure velocity of muscle stretch(dynamic phase) o Annulospiral endings wrap around both bag and chain  What is a secondary afferent and what does it include? o Flow spray ends, only on chain type, measure change in length of muscle stretch  How do they differ? o They measure different things and different nuclei orientation  Where are mechanically gated ion channels? o They are on sensory ending afferent neurons  What is proprioception? o Limb position

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 What is kinesthesia? o Movement perception Lecture 11: Somatosensory System II: Cutaneous Receptors  What is mechanotransduction? o It is when mechanical energy is converted into electrical current in an action potential  What is a cutaneous receptive field? o An area of the skin that is able to evoke action potential  What are the 4 types of cutaneous receptors? o Merkle o Meissner corpuscle o Ruffin Ending o Pacinian corpuscle  Which receptors have a larger receptive field size? o Type 2 because they are deeper down and  What are the two types of Slow Adapting Receptors? o Type one  What do they respond to?  Merkle Cells: they respond to edges and, curves and textures o Type two  What do they respond to?  Ruffin Endings: they respond to skin stretch  What are the two types of Fast Adapting Receptors? o Type one  What do they respond to?  Meissner Corpuscle: velocity of skin indentation o Type two  What do they respond to?  Pacinian Corpuscle: acceleration, and vibration of objects  What do the innervation density of the 4 types vary? o The tip of the finger mostly has SA1 and FA1 highly concentrated in the finger tips where as SA2 and FA2 are mostly equally distributed  If a vibration frequency is increased how does this affect the amount of indentation need to activate the cell? o It needs less indentation to activate the cell  What is the spatial code? o The CNS can determine the location of stimuli based on which afferents are activated Lecture 12: Somatosensory System III: GTO and Joint Receptors  What is pain measured from? o Inflammation in the tissue read by free nerve endings

 How are thermoreceptors and nociceptor activated with relation to temp? o Thermoreceptors are activated at lower temperature and once it hits the point that the temperature causes tissue damage then nociceptors turn on and thermoreceptors turn off.  Where are GTO located? o They are located in between tendons and muscle fibres  What type of afferent are GTO innervated from? o Type 1B  What are GTO most sensitive to? o Active force production from muscle contractions  How does force output change the firing rate of GTOs? o Higher force production cause higher firing rate from GTO  In respect to joints what do Type I- Ruffin Endings code for? o Intra-articular pressure  In respect to joints what do Type II- Pacinian corpuscles code for? o Joint acceleration  In respect to joints what do Type III- golgi endings code for? o Tension in in ligaments(good for ROM)  In respect to joints what do Type IV- free nerve endings code for? o Tissue damage  Are joint receptors good for telling joint position? Why? o NO because they are activated in all directions so they can’t tell which muscle are in what position  What are joint receptors good for telling our body about? o When we are at our end of range of motion and at risk for injury  Fill in this chart: Sensory Function Receptor Type Afferent Axon Type Axon Diameter (relative) Conduction Speed (relative) Proprioception Muscle spindle and GTO Ia, II, Ib, Thickest Fastest Touch Merkle, Meissner, Ruffini, Pacinian, joint receptor AB(beta) Pain/Temp Free nerve endings AS(theta) Pain, temp, itch Free nerve endings C Thinnest Slowest

Lecture 14: somatosensory evoked reflexes  What is convergent vs divergent synapse? o Convergent: goes from many neurons to one neuron o Divergent: goes from one to many neurons  How does more stimulus affect reflexes? o It makes it release more neurotransmitters, which causes more action potentials  When a single muscle spindle connects to a large number of the motor neuron pool what is this called? o Divergence  What are the steps in the muscle stretch reflex? o Hammer stretches the tendon which stretches the sensory receptors in the leg extensor muscle o Sensory neuron synapses with and excites the motor neuron in the spinal cord  Sensory neuron also excites the spinal interneuron  The interneuron synapses inhibits the motor neuron to the flexor muscle o Motor neuron conducts action potential to synapse on extensor muscle fibres causing contraction  Flexor muscles relaxes because the activity of this motor neuron has been inhibited o Leg extends  What is faciliatory tonic excitatory input? What causes it? o Can be another sensory input or descending input that makes it more sensitive to stimuli(raises threshold)  What is sensory steering for the cutaneous withdrawal reflexes? o Our reflexes are wired so that the appropriate muscles are activated so that we move in the correct direction away from the stimulus  What is the flexion crossed extension reflex? o it is the reflex that ensures that when you retract you injured leg you compensate so that your body weight is transferred over to the other leg and you don’t fall over  What happens in a normal vs positive Babinski reflex? o Normal in adults your toes curl down o Positive you toes splay  What is the purpose of Golgi tendon organs? o It is a protective reflex so that when you are at intense contractions that your muscle shut down so that you don’t injure yourself  What is autogenic inhibition? o The reflex that results in inhibition of muscles when forces become dangerously high  What is a Renshaw cell?

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o It is an inhibitory neuron that is activated either from the motor neuron itself firing so much or top down control from the brain that cause the release of Cl because of inhibitory neurotransmitter being released Lecture 16: descending control of movement: primary motor cortex  What do Betz cells do? o They send action potentials down the descending spinal tract  What does the premotor cortex do? o The premotor cortex plans movement  What does the primary motor cortex do? o It executes movement  Where is decussation for M1? o Caudle medulla  In relation to space in M1 if an area of the body does more fine motor movement how does this affect the amount of space that it takes up in M1? o More fine motor means that it will take up more space in M1  Is there overlap in the areas associated of body parts in M1? o The medial part controls the lower part and as you move laterally it will go up the body to the head  How does the length on a stimulus affect the complexity of movement? o More stimuli means that it will become a more complex movement(monkey experiment)  Can M1 connect both to extensor and flexors? o Yes  When does M1 fire in respect to movement? o M1 fires before the movement happens  What is directional tunning in M1? o Each individual neuron has a max firing in a specific direction  Can you predict direction of movement before it happens? If so how? o Yes you can predict movement before it happens because the movement vector can predict the population vector Somatosensory Cortex  What is the difference between VPLn and VPMn? o VPLn relays somatosensory info from the body o VPMn relay somatosensory info from the face/oral cavity  What body area does the somatosensory cortex control going medial to lateral? o The medial part controls the lower part and as you move laterally it will go up the body to the head  Can S1 adapt, for example what happens if a digit is loss in s1? o S1 is plastic meaning that it can change, in relation to the lose of the digit the area that the digit that was lost took up was eventually taken over by the other digits, if you don’t use it you lose it  What causes phantom limb?

o When the re-modeling of S1 is remodeling people can still feel pain because that area for that limb still exists in S1 Lecture 15: Spinal Cord Anatomy  Where does sensory info enter? o Dorsal root  Where does motor command exit? o Ventral root  Explain lateral corticospinal tract? o Where is decussation?  Caudle Medulla o Is it descending or ascending?  Descending  Explain Ventral Corticospinal Tract? o Where is decussation?  None as it is bilateral o Is it descending or ascending?  Descending  Where do AB axons decussate and what info do they receive? o Caudle medulla  Where do AS/C axons decussate and what info do they receive? o At the level that they enter in the spine  Explain the dorsal column medial lemniscus tract? o Where is decussation?  Caudle medulla o Is it descending or ascending?  Ascending  Explain the Ventral Spinothalamic Tract? o Where is decussation?  At the level that it enters in the spine o Is it descending or ascending?  Ascending  Where are all the tracts located with respect to the spine and what do they control? o DCML is the most dorsal one, it controls mechanoreceptors o LCST is lateral but more dorsal, it controls distal muscles o VST is lateral but more ventral, it controls pain and temperature o VSCT is most ventral, it controls proximal muscles  Where are proximal vs distal muscles controlled in the spinal cord? o Proximal is more medial and distal is more lateral Lecture 16: Spinal Cord Injuries  What is paraplegia? o It is paralysis of the low body

 What is hemiplegia? o Paralysis of one side of the body  What is tetraplegia? o Paralysis of all four limbs  How does Brown-Sequard Syndrome present? o It is when there is damage to half of the spinal cord, this then causes  For the side with the lesion there will be a lose of motor function  For the side without the lesion there will be a lose of pain and temp.  What is a spinal infarct? o Stroke in the spine  What does the ASIA scale test? o It is the test for spinal injuries o It tests for motor control, bilaterally at all spinal levels along with strength o It tests for light and painful touch/stimulus  What does supportive treadmill walking help change? o It can help with creating smoother movements or movement all together Lecture 17:  What is fine motor? o It a skill that involves small muscles of the hands, fingers, tongue, lips to perform precise movement  What is gross motor? o It involves large movements that require the use of large muscles in the arms, legs, torso and feet  What is open motor? o The environment is variable and unpredictable  What is closed motor? o The environment is stable and predictable  What is discrete motor skill? o Is a brief action that has a clear beginning and end  What is continuous motor skill? o Repetitive and cyclical that has no clear beginning or end  What is serial motor skill? o Is a group of discrete motor skills strung together to make up a new more complicated skill  How do upper limb movement tend to be? o Paths tend to be in a smooth and straight path  What shape is a hand speed profile? o It is a bell shape curve  How much time does a healthy young adult spend in acceleration and deceleration during hand movement? o ~45-50% in acceleration and ~50-55% in deceleration because it takes more accuracy when you are around the object and grabbing it

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 What happens if an external force hits your arm in a reaching task? o When disturber you will go off track, to counter the force than you will return back to your original path Lecture 18:  What are the three stages of information processing? o Stimulus Identification o Response Selection o Response Programming  What is reaction time? o It is the time that it takes to identify the stimulus and initial motor response  What is movement time? o It is the time elapsed from reaction time to the end of the movement  What is response time? o It is the time elapsed from stimulus identification to the end of the movement  It is RT and MT combined  What three factors affect the speed of motor decisions? o # of response choices o Stimulus response compatibility o Anticipation  What is simple reaction time? o Time interval b/w a known stimulus and a motor response  What is choice reaction time? o Time interval b/w the presentation of one of several possible stimuli and the beginning of one of several potential motor responses  What does Hick’s law interpret? o The relationship b/w # of choices and RT  What is stimulus response compatibility? o Spatially mapped so that the stimulus coordinates with the movement  What is motor compatibility? o Movement controls are relative to response  What is temporal anticipation? o You know where and what the stimulus is just not when  What is Spatial anticipation? o You know when just not where the stimulus is  What is spatial-temporal anticipation? o You don’t know where or what the stimulus is

Lecture 19:  What three factors influence the spatial accuracy of movement? o Motor Variability Scales w/ movement speed  Changing distance and time restraints affect the accuracy o Fitt’s Theorem  Relationship b/w movement amplitude, accuracy and MT o Neurophysiological Principles Governing the Amplitude of Movement Error  Force levels and innervation number  What is a and w in fitts theorm? And how do they change to make tasks harder or easier? o A is amplitude and to make it harder you want to increase it o W is width of the object and to make it harder you want to decrease it  How to young adults and older adults vary during movement? o Older adults intercept is higher meaning that their baseline movement is harder to start o Also they have a higher slope meaning that their speed accuracy trade off is more severe o They also spend about 60% of their time in the deceleration phase  How does force produced affect the variability? o Increase in force means and increase in variability Lecture 20:  What is attention? o A limited cognitive resource or pool/resource that is available and can be used for different tasks o How does it change with high and low attention demands when doing a secondary activity?  When your first activity is of low attention than adding a second activity will have little to no effect  When your first task is of high attention than adding a second activity will have high effect o What is parallel processing of sensory info?  The ability to process 2 streams of sensory info at once  Different streams can often be processed simultaneously and independently but the same stream often leads to decrease speed and accuracy o What is the control vs automatic continuum?  Controlled is slow, deliberate, consciously aware and has high attention demands  Autonomic is fast, smooth, unconscious performance, low attention demand

 Practice can shift controlled to autonomic  How does this change under pressure?  It can reduce the availability of attentional resourced for motor decisions and lead to controlled processing  What is spatially and temporally-incompatible movements? o it requires limbs to perform independent actions  What is arousal? o Level of excitement produced under stress  What is the inverted U principle? o Relationship between arousal levels and performance  What is the individual zone optimal functioning? o The range of arousal associated with a persons maximal performance  When complexity is high what does it require? o Low arousal, task with high precision demands  When complexity is low what does it require? o High arousal, task with low precision demands Lecture 21:  What is an intrafusal fibre? o no force o bag and chain type  What is an afferent neuron? o Info to the spinal cord and brain about sensory input, as stretch activity  What is an efferent neuron? o Send info to muscle spindles to produce force and muscle contractions  What is a gamma motor? o Innervates with intrafusal fibres  What is a sensory ending? o Sense the stretch to open mechanically gates channels  What is a central region? o Doesn’t contract  What is a capsule? o Tissue surrounding the intrafusal fibres  What is an extrafusal fibre? o Produces force and causes contractions parallel to intrafusal fibres  How does action potential change when a muscle spindle is stretched, relaxed and contracted? o Stretched there is a high firing rate o Relaxed there is some firing still o Contracted there is decreased firing rate  How does the release of neurotransmitter effected by the length and duration of a stretch?

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o When there is a larger and longer stimulus it causes a greater change in the membrane potential which causes more action potential and release of neurotransmitter  What are the steps of the knee jerk reflex? o Tendon tap rapidly lengthens the quad muscle o Stretch in quad muscle lengthens intrafusal fibres, cause spindle to fire AP o Spindle afferents enter the spinal cord via dorsal horn o Sensory neuron synapses on and excites alpha motor neuron o Sensory neuron also synapse on inhibitory interneuron, which inhibits the AMN of the antagonist muscle o Excitation of the alpha motor neuron causes reflex contraction of the quad muscle o Hamstring(antagonist) is inhibited o Info sent to the brain  What is reciprocal inhibition? o Is inhibition mediated by a single inhibitory interneuron  What is the function of gamma neurons? o Stimulate the intrafusal fibres, which maintain length, which maintain length of intrafusal fibres and spindle sensitivity during muscle contraction and movement  What neurons in the spinal reflex EPSP and which are IPSP? o Motor neurons for the homonymous muscle are EPSP o Inhibitory interneurons are EPSP o Antagonist motor neurons are IPSP Lecture 22  What is the short latency response? o Spinal proprioceptive feedback o What can effect this?  Only an increase in speed or amplitude of stimulus can change reflex sizes o Where does the info go for this?  It only goes to the spine and back to the effector  What is the long latency response? o Spinal and cortical proprioceptive feedback o What effects this?  The goal that is set can change this o What does this involve?  The spine and recruits structures in the cerebral cortex  What is the voluntary response? o Spinal, cortical proprioceptive feedback, and visual feedback  What is the use of sensory feedback to control/correct Movement? o The use of it take the expected state of a motor plan that is created then, use visual info., proprioception to then find the actual state, which then is used to calculate error to correct the motion

Lecture 23  What is exteroception? o Sensory info. that tells us about the state of our body in relation to the world  What is the dorsal stream? o “where” pathway, uses vision for action guidance o Goes from the occipital lobe to super parietal lobule o Visual feedback is processed and used to correct ongoing actions o What happens when these are damaged? o Causes optic ataxia selective impairments in the inability to use visions to guide reaching movements  What is ventral stream? o “what” pathway uses vision for perception o Goes from occipital lobe to inferior temporal lobule o Used for object identification and recognition o What happens when these are damaged?  Can cause selective impairments in conscious object perception but intact control of actions  What is optic flow and what info does it provide? o Flow of an object across the retina o Time to contact, movement of object in environment, stability and balance, velocity o Time to contact?  Rate of expansion increases as time to contact decrease  Visual feedback in goal-directed actions? o Vision helps improve the accuracy of slow, deliberate movements(not useful for rapid movement) o Dorsal stream: enables fast, stimulus dependent control of visual feedback o Ventral stream: enables somewhat slow, taste dependent control of visual feedback  What can effect performance? o Mood, motivation, stress, physical fatigue, arousal  How do we measure performance? o Performance curve: a graph of performance, across trials(often average) o Law of Practice: performance improves rapidly at first but more gradually later on o Motor learning: refers to the process of acquiring a motor skill  What is motor adaptation? o The process of modifying the skill for different conditions, equipment(existing skills) Lecture 24  What is the posterior lobe of the cerebellum?

o Involved in learning from movement errors and adapting to properties to body or environments o Smooth movement and error processing o What happens when there is damage to the cerebellum?  Injury causes slower or little to no adaptation Lecture 25  What happens during adaptation for reaching movements for novel forces? o After a while, and once a person adapts to the force, then the hand path will become like there was never a force disturbing the path o What receptors provide feedback for this?  Cutaneous, muscle spindle, visual info, GTO  How does this differ for cerebellar patient? o They will not display any signs of learning as there will be little to no learning in the washout phase  Is motor adaptation specific? o Yes it doesn’t translate to other thing  Can we learn from watching others perform tasks? o Yes we can learn new motor skills by just watching, or improve existing skills by just watching Lecture 26  What is transfer of learning? o How learning achieved in one task/setting carries over to performance in an alternate task/setting  Specialized transfer? o Closed motor skill and discrete skill  Generalized transfer? o Changing environment, open skill o Near transfer?  Requires learner to perform the target movement in target content o Far transfer?  Focused on the development of more general skills  What is perceptual elements? o The ability to transfer perceptual skills that are shared between activities  Aspects if a task that deals with sensory feedback to guide and control actions  What is strategies and conceptual similarities? o Ability to transfer high-level strategies that are shared between activities o Conceptual elements?  Aspects of a task that deals with the rules, principles, or strategies of performance  What is the retention interval?

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o Period of time where no further practice is undertaken  What is part practice? o Practicing aspects or sub-units of performance in isolation  What is whole practice? o Practicing whole skills/sequence of movement in their entirety  What is component interactions? o The extent to which actions involved in 1 part of a skill influence actions involved in another part of the skill  What is progressive part practice? o Transition between different elements o Develop fundamental elements in isolation then string them together Lecture 27  Explain state, action, and reward? o Reward can be binary or scalar quantity  What is cumulative reward? o Might be better to sacrifice immediate reward for long term reward  What is exploration? o Trial and error process of acquiring more info. about environment by searching for possibilities of reward  What is exploitation? o Capitalize on known info to maximize reward  What is the trade off b/w exploration and exploitation? o Sometimes after time, you will no longer get reward from doing the same thing over and over again so you have to change what you are doing to continue to get reward  What brain structures play an important role in reinforcement learning? o Basal ganglia o Dopamine(substantia nigra)  What is chunking? o Practice can link sequential actions into a single movement pattern into a single movement pattern(fusing a series of individual elements into a larger sub-unit of a movement sequence  What is co-activation? o Adjacent movement elements influence each other  Causes blending of discrete movements w/in a sequence and is associated with increase speed and smoothness  What brain regions have increased activity during: o Early stages of learning?  Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex , inferior parietal cortex, rostral premotor areas, cerebellum, basal ganglia o Late stages of learning?  Supplementary motor area, dorsal premotor area, primary motor cortex

Lecture 28  Outcome goals? o Targets performance that focuses on end result/ outcomes  Performance goals? o Focuses on improving a specific aspect of performance  Process goals? o Focuses on the quality of movement production  Can we learn from watching? o Yes we can  Can we learn from mental practice? o Yes it is practice of a motor skill in absence of overt movement  Massed practice? o A practice schedule with brief amount of rest between trials/sessions  Distributed practice? o A practice schedule with long amount of rest between trial/sessions  Rest intervals, are they good? o Longer rest periods increase practice performance and retention  Blocked practice? o All trials of a given task/skill are completed before moving to a new task/skill  Random practice? o Individual practice different skills in random order during a practice session  Constant practice schedules? o A practice schedule in which individual practice one variation of a skill before moving on to the next variation  Variable practice schedules? o A practice schedule where different variations of the same skill are practiced in random order  Serial practice? o Hybrid of constant and variable practice, different variation in each block Lecture 29  What is feedback? o Info about movement patterns outcomes the nervous system can use to guide future movements  Augmented feedback? o Info about movement outcome o External force and augments intrinsic feedback o Supplements info about performance o Feedback can be: info to correct errors, focus attention, motivational or produce dependence  Knowledge of results?

o Feedback about success or degree of success of an action related to the goal of the task  Knowledge of performance? o Feedback about movement patterns while performing a motor task  Tapered feedback? o Provide frequent feedback during early stages and progressively withdraw feedback as learned becomes skilled  Instantaneous Feedback? o Feedback provided after movement that informs learners about the trial they just finished  Can make learner dependent  Delayed Feedback? o Feedback provided a short period of time after movement that informs learners about trial just finished  Summary Feedback? o Feedback provided after a series of trials that informs learners about each attempt in the series  Waiting helps prevent dependence  Average Feedback? o Feedback after a series of trails that informs the learner about their average performance  Helps understand what typical error that a learner makes

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