Unit05LectureSG

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Unit 5 Lecture Study Guide Digestive System What are the digestive organs? Make up the digestive/alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs What is the digestive tract/alimentary canal? Continuous tubes of organs where food travels through and is eliminated as feces Oral cavity Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine (SI) Large intestine (LI) What organs are part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract? Stomach Small intestine (SI) Large intestine (LI) What are the accessory digestive organs and their function? Assist digestion in the GI tract Teeth Tongue Salivary glands Liver Gallbladder Pancreas What is the general functions of the digestive system? Ingestion solids/liquids in oral cavity Digestion breakdown of food into smaller structures or molecules Mechanical digestion physical break down into smaller structures to increase surface area for enzymes to act on food Segmentation mechanical digestion by mixing of food and digestive secretion along the intestines Chemical digestion that breakdown macromolecules into monomers by digestive enzymes Propulsion movement through alimentary canal Peristalsis muscular contraction that propels food down alimentary canal Secretion production and release of secretions from accessory and digestive organs to help the digestion of food Absorption transport of digestive products, electrolytes, vitamins, water through GI epithelium to blood and lymph vessels Elimination / Defecation undigestible materials and waste products are eliminated by defecation What are the different types of digestion? Chewing/mastication of the teeth, churning of stomach, segmentation Name examples of mechanical digestion What are the different types of propulsion? Swallowing/deglutition, peristalsis What are the layers of the digestive tract? Mucosa Epithelium Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae

Submucosa Muscularis externa Inner circular layer Outer longitudinal layer Serosa Areolar tissue Mesothelium Adventitia What is the mucosa? Inner layer of the digestive tract that faces the lumen (space where food/bolus/chyme/feces travels through) What are the three parts of the mucosa and their definitions? Mucosa Epithelium Lamina propria loose CT Muscularis mucosae contracts to create grooves/ridges to increase surface area to contract with food to increase absorption What types of epithelium are there and where are they located in the alimentary canal and their function? Simple columnar epithelium most of the digestive tract Stratified squamous epithelium oral cavity to esophagus and at the end of the anal canal What is the mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue? Mucosa contains a lot of lymphocytes and lymphatic nodules to help fight off pathogens What is the submucosa and what does it contain? Made of loose CT with BV, lymphatic vessels, nerve plexus, and possibly glands. MALT What is the muscularis externa? Typically 2 smooth muscle layers What are the different layers of the muscularis externa? Muscularis externa Inner circular layer circular smooth muscles that prevents the backflow of food/etc Outer longitudinal layer longitudinal smooth muscles that propels food/etc forward What other structures does the inner circular layer form? Sphincters What is the serosa? Outermost layer of the digestive tract from the lower esophagus to the large intestine prior to the rectum and is the continuation of the visceral peritoneum What parts are contained within the serosa? Where do you find serosa? Serosa Areolar tissue Mesothelium How is adventitia different from serosa? Most outer layer of the pharynx, most of the esophagus, and rectum with their CT blending into other CT of other organs Where do you find adventitia? What are dense bodies? Found on the sarcolemma of smooth muscles and are similar to Z discs of skeletal muscles. Anchors intermediate filaments so when the smooth muscles contract, the muscle cell shortens What are the different types of smooth muscles? Single-unit located in walls of hollow organs (uterus, BV, digestive viscera) Multiunit located within the eye and arrector pili muscles

How are they different and where do you find them? Single-unit: cells are connected by gap junctions so when it contracts, it contracts as a single unit. Some are autorhythmic. Multiunit: cells are in bundles or single smooth muscle cells without gap junctions with each cell with a neuron innervating it What is the source of calcium for smooth muscles? Sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellularly What is the enteric nervous system? Regulates motility, secretion, and blood flow of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines; regulated by parasympathetic system What structures are part of this nervous system and where are they found? Enteric nervous system Submucosal plexus / Meissner plexus within submucosa layer for the muscularis mucosae and glandular secretion Myenteric plexus / Auerbach plexus between the muscularis externa layers for peristalsis What is the peritoneum? Serous membrane lining the viscera and abdominopelvic walls to reduce friction between viscera and walls What are the different parts of the peritoneum? Parietal peritoneum lines abdominopelvic walls Peritoneal cavity potential space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum where serous fluid prevents friction Visceral peritoneum lines the viscera What are retroperitoneal organs and name examples? Posterior organs behind the parietal peritoneum (duodenum, pancreas, ascending/descending colon, rectum) What is mesentery? Peritoneum that connect visceral peritoneum of organs and the parietal peritoneum What are the different types of mesenteries and their location? Mesenteries Falciform ligament connects liver to anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm Greater omentum covers the abdominal organs from the greater curvature of the stomach Lesser omentum connects the lesser curvature of stomach to liver Mesenetery / Mesentery proper suspends most of SI from posterior abdominal wall Mesocolon peritoneum that suspends parts of the large intestine to posterior abdominal wall Transverse mesocolon suspends the transverse colon from the posterior wall Sigmoid mesocolon suspends the sigmoid colon from the posterior wall What is the oral cavity? What is the tissue surrounding the oral cavity? “mouth” and entrance of digestive tract lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium and is surrounded by labia (lips), buccae (cheeks), palate, and tongue What are the functions of the oral cavity? Ingestion of food, taste and touch sensation, mastication (chewing) – mechanical digestion, chemical digestion via salivary enzymes, deglutition (swallowing), speech, respiration What are the oral cavity organs and function Labia thin keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Buccae holds food within mouth when chewing Gingivae “gums” cover the alveolar process of mandible + maxillae and supports teeth Tongue for gustation/taste, sound production, mastication, deglutition (swallowing), and defense (lingual tonsil) Palate roof of the oral cavity and separates it with nasal cavity Hard palate anterior part made of maxillary palatine processes and palatine bones

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Soft palate skeletal muscle helps close off nasopharynx preventing it from entering nasal cavity Uvula posterior portion of soft palate that also closes off nasopharynx and for producing certain sounds Fauces posterior opening to oropharynx What are salivary glands? What is in saliva? Mostly water + lots of stuff (digestive enzymes, mucin, electrolytes, defensive secretions); bolus = food + saliva What cells make saliva and what does each individually make? Serous acini produces water, enzymes, electrolytes, and defensive secretions to moisten food for taste, chemical digestion, and defense Salivary amylase: digest carbohydrates Lingual lipase: digest triglycerides but activated at low pH (stomach) Mucous acini produces thick mucus made of mucin and water to lubricate food What are the different types of salivary glands and how they differ? Parotid salivary glands largest salivary glands, produces 25-30% of saliva Submandibular salivary glands produce the most saliva 60-70%, serous and mucous acini Sublingual salivary glands produces the least saliva 3-5%, serous and mucous acini but mostly mucous What are dentition and its general function? For chewing (mastication) What are the regions of a tooth? Crown exposed part of tooth Neck part between the crown and root Root anchors tooth in alveolus What are the tooth structures and definition? Enamel outer layer of the crown made of calcium phosphate crystals (hardest substance in body) Cementum outer layer of root Dentin hard substance making bulk of tooth Pulp cavity center of tooth with pulp where BV and nerves are located Root canal space that leads from the root to the pulp cavity Pulp loose CT, blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves that fill the root canal and pulp cavity Periodontal ligaments gomphosis joint that binds root to alveolus What is the different between deciduous vs permanent teeth? Deciduous – “baby/milk teeth”, consists of 20 teeth, permanent – “adult teeth”, consists of 32 teeth What are the different teeth and their definition? Incisors(8) anterior, medial teeth for cutting food Central (4) Lateral (4) Canines / Cuspids (4) posterior and lateral to incisors for puncturing food Premolars / Bicuspids (4) have cusps to crush and grind food 1st (4) 2nd (4) Molars (12) most posterior teeth with cusps and 3 or 4 roots for grinding 1st (4) 2nd (4) 3rd: “wisdom teeth” (4)

What are the different regions of the pharynx (passageway for air and food made of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium) that food passes through and their epithelium? Oropharynx posterior to the oral cavity where food will enter the Laryngopharynx posterior to the larynx where food will enter esophagus What does the esophagus do and what tissue does it contain? Peristalsis carries bolus from pharynx to stomach and is made of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium to protect from abrasion and contains some skeletal muscle as well as smooth muscle What is the smooth muscle at the end of the esophagus called and its function? Lower/inferior esophageal sphincter/esophagealgastric/cardiac sphincter: weak circular smooth muscle that prevents material from stomach from regurgitating What are the layers of the esophagus? Mucosa made of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Submucosa esophageal glands Muscularis externa skeletal muscles (upper 1/3), both skeletal and smooth muscle (middle 1/3), smooth muscle (lower 1/3) Adventitia or serosa adventitia in thoracic cavity, serosa in abdominal cavity What is different about esophagus’ muscularis externa? More smooth muscle What is the general function of the stomach (location where bolus becomes chyme as it mixes with gastric secretion) and examples of it? Mechanical digestion churning and mixing by the stomach Chemical digestion gastric enzymes and HCl Storage of food as it is digesting Limited absorption (aspirin, lipid soluble drugs) What is chyme? Food + gastric juices What are the structures of the stomach? Greater curvature inferior, convex portion of the stomach that the greater omentum attaches to Lesser curvature superior, concave portion of the stomach where the lesser omentum attaches to from the liver Rugae capability for stomach to expand when full What are the different gastric regions and their structures? Cardiac region region closest to esophagus’ entry to stomach Fundic region dome-shaped region and is the superior part of the stomach Body majority region of the stomach, inferior of the cardiac and fundic region Pyloric region narrow and is part of the stomach that leads to SI Pyloric antrum wider part of the pylorus next to the body Pyloric sphincter circular smooth muscle at the border of the stomach and SI controlling amount of chyme entering the SI What types of cells are within the mucosa of the stomach and what do they produce? Mucous cells secrete Mucin to protect stomach muscosa from HCl and gastric enzymes G cells / Enteroendocrine cells secrete Gastrin, hormone that stimulates chief and parietal cells secretion Parietal cells secrete HCl denatures proteins to help chemical digestion and activates gastric enzymes Intrinsic factor molecules that bind to vitamin B 12 to help absorption in ileum Chief cells secretes digestive enzymes Pepsinogen > Pepsin inactive enzyme which becomes pepsin to digest proteins

Gastric lipase – to digest triglycerides What is different about the muscularis externa of the stomach compared to the rest of the alimentary canal? Oblique layer – inner smooth muscle layer to help the churning and mixing by the stomach What is the general functions of the small intestine and examples of what it does? Mechanical digestion segmentation Chemical digestion secretion of digestive enzymes; most digestion occurs here Absorption most of the absorption of nutrients and water occurs here What are the regions of the small intestines and what structures do you find in these regions and their definitions? How do they differ from each other? Duodenum short initial part of SI Greater duodenal papilla location where bile and pancreatic juices enter the duodenum Lesser duodenal papilla where some pancreatic juice from the accessory pancreatic duct enters the duodenum Duodenal glands located in submucosal layer and makes alkaline mucus to protect duodenum from acidic chyme from stomach Jejunum middle portion of SI where most of the chemical digestion and absorption takes place Ileum final part of SI Peyer’s patches / Aggregated lymphoid nodules located at lamina propria and is a group of lymphatic nodules to defend against bacteria from the LI Ileocecal valve sphincter that regulates chyme going into LI Name the different structures of the small intestine and their definitions Circular folds / Plicae circularis folds of the mucosal and part of the submucosal layers in the SI to help increase the SA for absorption Villi microscopic projections of the circular folds to increase SA for absoprtion Microvilli / Brush border even smaller projections of a villus to increase SA for absorption that is on the apical side of the simple columnar epithelial cells and contains brush border enzymes for final breakdown of nutrients Lacteal lymphatic capillary for lipid absorption within each villus Intestinal glands glands that dip into the mucosa layer Cells Absorptive cells simple columnar epithelial cells that absorbs nutrients Goblet cells that produce mucus to lubricate chyme and protect against acidic chyme what makes chyme acidic? What are within the layers of the small intestine and their function? Mucosa Simple columnar epithelium Absorptive cells for absorption and contain brush border enzymes to digest proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids into really small molecules for absorption Brush border enzyme Tight junctions between cells to prevent enzymes from going through Goblet cells secret mucus Lamina propria Lacteal lymphatic capillary absorbs lipids Capillaries absorb nutrients Submucosa Duodenal glands secretes bicarbonate-rich mucus to neutralize acidic chyme from the stomach

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Peyer’s patches large lymphatic nodules What does the chyme become in the large intestine? feces What is the different between the large intestine and small intestine? Large in diameter compared to SI What are the general functions of the large intestine? Propulsion mass peristaltic movements occurs only a few times a day, otherwise really slow Limited chemical digestion due to what? Bacteria that resides here Absorption water, electrolytes, vitamins Storage feces What are the regions of the large intestine and their associated structures and general functions? Cecum initial part of LI where chyme from ileum goes through Vermiform appendix contains lymphatic nodules Colon region between ileocecal junction and rectum Ascending colon part of LI going superior from cecum Hepatic flexure / Right colic flexure bend connecting ascending and transverse colon Transverse colon part of LI goes transversely from the hepatic flexure to splenic flexure; where the transverse mesocolon connects to posterior abdominal wall Splenic flexure / Left colic flexure bend connecting transverse and descending colon Descending colon part of LI from splenic flexure to sigmoid colon Sigmoid colon S-shaped part of the LI that curves into pelvic cavity; where sigmoid mesocolon connects to posterior abdominopelvic wall Rectum part of LI that connects sigmoid colon to anal canal and stores feces Anal canal passes feces during defecation Internal anal sphincter involuntary smooth muscle External anal sphincter voluntary skeletal muscle What are the large intestine structures and their general functions? Intestinal glands / Intestinal crypts contains mucosa and submucosa layer; LI contains no villi Mucosa simple columnar epithelium for absorption of water, electrolytes, and vitamins; lots of goblet cells to help lubricate feces Muscularis externa outer longitudinal layer does not completely surround cecum and colon Teniae coli longitudinal bundles of smooth muscles that makes haustra Haustra sacs that are formed by the taenia coli Epiploic appendages lobules of fat hanging from the ext surface What is the general function of the liver? - Produce bile: for emulsification of fats (mechanical digestion): breaking down fats to help chemical digestion - Detoxify drugs - Synthesize blood plasma proteins - Break down damaged cells - Break down glycogen into glucose What are the lobes of the liver? Right lobe Left lobe Caudate lobe adjacent to the IVC on the inferior side of liver Quadrate lobe adjacent to the gallbladder on the inferior side of liver

What are the ligaments of the liver and their function/prior function? Falciform ligament peritoneal fold securing liver to anterior wall Round ligament / Ligamentum teres remnant of umbilical vein at the inferior portion of the falciform ligament Ligamentum venosum remnant of ductus venosus on inferior part of the liver What are the vessels coming through the porta hepatis and what do they carry? Hepatic portal vein nutrient rich blood from stomach and intestines Hepatic artery proper oxygen-rich blood from celiac trunk Common hepatic duct bile exits from liver What are within a hepatic lobule and their general functions? Hepatocytes liver cells which make bile, detoxify, store excess nutrients, synthesize plasma proteins Vessels Portal triads branch of hepatic portal veins, hepatic artery proper, and bile duct Hepatic portal vein/venule blood from GI tract, spleen, pancreas rich in nutrients but poor in oxygen is delivered to the liver to be detoxified Hepatic artery proper delivers nutrients and oxygenated blood to liver Bile ductule drains bile from bile canaliculi to common hepatic duct Hepatic sinusoids leaky capillaries where blood from branches of hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery proper mix and empty into.. Central vein drains blood from each lobe Hepatic veins drains blood from central veins and empties into IVC Bile canaliculi drains bile from hepatocytes into bile ductules What is the blood flow through the hepatic portal system? What is the general function of the gallbladder? - Concentrates and stores bile from liver via cystic duct - Bile acids/salts: steroids from cholesterol which helps the mechanical digestion of fats What is the flow of the biliary duct system? Hepatocytes secretes bile into Bile canaliculi and then to Bile ductules of the portal triads which empty into R/L hepatic ducts when converge into the Common hepatic duct which then joins with Cystic duct that connects with the Gallbladder (what does this do?) stores bile and releases bile when fat is present in duodenum and released it through cystic duct or common bile duct connects with the main pancreatic duct to form the Hepatopancreatic ampulla contains Hepatopancreatic sphincter/sphincter of Oddi (what does this do?) smooth muscle that regulates the release of bile into the duodenum through the Major duodenal papilla into duodenum What are the regions of the pancreas? Head wide and close to the duodenum Body bulk of the pancreas Tail narrow portion of pancreas towards spleen

What is the general function of the pancreas? - Endo: produces hormones - Exo: secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate What are the structures of the pancreas and their general functions? Pancreatic islets / Islet of Langerhans endocrine function in making hormones Pancreatic acini cluster of acini cells Acinar cells cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes in pancreatic juice Main pancreatic duct drains pancreatic juice and produce sodium bicarbonate Hepatopancreatic ampulla common bile duct merges with main pancreatic duct to enter through Hepatopancreatic sphincter / sphincter of Oddi smooth muscle that regulates the secretion of bile and pancreatic juice Major duodenal papilla pancreatic juice from main pancreatic duct drains into the duodenum Accessory pancreatic duct drains some pancreatic juice into the duodenum through Minor duodenal papilla location where pancreatic juice from accessory pancreatic duct drains into duodenum What is the flow of pancreatic juice? Urinary System What are the structures of the urinary system and their general functions? Kidneys filter waste products of blood and converts it to urine Urinary tract transports/stores urine Ureters transports urine to urinary bladder Urinary bladder stores urine Urethra voids urine What are the general functions of the urinary system? Urine storage stores urine until ready to micturate (urine) Urine excretion excrete metabolic waste via micturition Blood volume regulation regulates blood volume which also affects blood pressure Erythrocyte production regulation when low blood oxygen is detected by kidneys, erythropoietin hormone of kidney secreted to increase erythrocyte production in red bone marrow Ion and acid/base balance regulates ions and acid-base balance by retaining or secreting ions and other molecules Where are the kidneys located? Retroperitoneal organ (behind peritoneum) surrounded by other tissues with R kidney slightly inferior than left kidney due to liver What is the renal hilum? Region where vessels, nerves, and ureters enter kidney What is the fibrous capsule and its general function? Dense irregular CT and covers outer surface of kidney; helps maintain shape of kidney, protect, and prevent pathogens entering kidney What is a renal lobe? Renal cortex outer part of kidney Renal medulla inner part of kidney What are renal columns and renal pyramids? Renal columns extensions of cortex that go into medulla and between… Renal pyramid cone-shaped structures where some tubules of nephrons dip into What are different parts of a renal pyramid?

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Base of renal pyramid located where cortex and medulla meet Renal papilla apex of renal pyramid that ends at the minor calyx (very tip) Urine from the collecting duct will go through which structures to the ureter? Minor calyx location where collecting ducts empty urine into located next to renal papilla Major calyx location where many minor calyces empty urine into Renal pelvis collects urine from major calyces and transport it to ureter Trace the blood flow within the kidney and where do these arteries, veins and capillaries are located at? Renal artery BV from abdominal aorta to the kidney and branches into Segmental artery up to 5 of these branches into Interlobar artery travel between the renal lobes through renal columns and branch to Arcuate artery travel at the base of the renal pyramids and branch into Cortical radiating artery / Interlobular artery projects into cortex and branch into Afferent arteriole / Afferent glomerular arteriole enters renal corpuscle and becomes Glomerulus capillary within renal corpuscle; where blood is filtered; rest of blood leaves glomerulus through Efferent arteriole / Efferent glomerular arteriole unfiltered blood that go to capillary beds Capillary beds gas exchange, nutrient and waste exchange for kidneys and reabsorption of ions/water Peritubular capillaries usually in cortex and associate with convoluted tubules OR Vasa recta usually in medulla and associated with nephron loop of juxtamedullary nephrons Cortical radiating vein / Interlobular vein drains blood from capillary bed to Arcuate vein parallel arcuate veins which lead to Interlobar vein parallel interlobar veins which lead to Renal vein drains kidneys to IVC What are the structures within the uriniferous tubules? Nephron Renal corpuscle Glomerulus Glomerular capsule Proximal convoluted tubule Loop of Henle Descending limb Ascending limb Distal convoluted tubule Collecting tubules Collecting ducts What are the structures that make up a nephron? Nephron functional unit of the kidney Renal corpuscle Glomerulus

Glomerular capsule Renal tubules Proximal convoluted tubule Nephron loop/Loop of Henle Descending limb Ascending limb Distal convoluted tubule What are the two types of nephrons and their locations? - Cortical nephron: (85%) nephrons and their tubules that stay mostly in the cortex with some parts that go to the medulla - Juxtamedullary nephrons: (15%) have long nephron loops that go into medulla What is the glomerulus and what does it do? Fenestrated (pores) capillary bed where blood is filtered into glomerular capsule What is the glomerular capsule? Epithelial capsule What is it composed of and their definitions? Visceral layer of the glomerular capsule directly covers glomerulus Podocyte specialized cells Filtration slits spaces between pedicels to allow blood plasma to pass through Filtration membrane filtration slits of podocytes + fenestrated glomerulus Capsular space filtrate is formed from filtration of blood into this space Parietal layer of the glomerular capsule made of simple squamous epithelium What is the proximal convoluted tubule and how is it different from the distal convoluted tubule? - PCT: simple cuboidal epithelium with microvilli (fuzzy in lumen) to increase reabsorption of nutrients like glucose, ions, vitamins, plasma proteins, and water. DCT has short, spare microvilli and secretes K + and H + and reabsorbs water and Na + What are the different parts of the nephron loop and their definitions? Descending limb of nephron loop goes down into medulla and lined Thick segment of descending limb of nephron loop simple cuboidal epithelium (thick) Thin segment of descending limb of nephron loop simple squamous epithelium (thin), reabsorbs water Ascending limb of nephron loop returns back to cortex Thin segment of ascending limb of nephron loop simple squamous epithelium (thin) Thick segment of ascending limb of nephron loop simple cuboidal epithelium (thick), reabsorbs ions What is the distal convoluted tubule and how is it different from the proximal convoluted tubule? What hormones act on this part of the nephron? - DCT: lined with simple cuboidal epithelium with short, sparse microvilli (clear in lumen); secrete K + and H + and reabsorbs water and Na + . PCT: microvilli to increase reabsorption of nutrients like glucose, ions, vitamins, plasma proteins, and water - ADH and aldosterone released when low blood volume/concentration of ions; affects DCT to cause reabsorption of water and solutes Name all the structures for the flow of filtrate and urine Define each of these structures - Collecting duct: transition from simple cuboidal epithelium to simple columnar epithelium; runs through renal medulla to renal papilla and empty into o ADH and aldosterone affects collecting tubules and ducts

- Minor calyx: collects urine from papillary ducts and transports it to - Major calyx: which in turn transports urine to - Renal pelvis: transport urine to ureters What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus and what structures forms this? Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) regulates blood pressure by affecting the glomerular filtration rate Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells modified smooth muscles of afferent arteriole near renal corpuscle Macula densa modified epithelial cells in DCT adjacent to JGC that detects amount of ion concentration of filtrate Where are the JG cells located at and what do they release? Afferent arteriole near renal corpuscle. Release renin when BP is low which helps increase aldosterone to increase BP Where are the macula densa located at and what is its general function? DCT adjacent to JGC. Regulates ion concentration of filtrate by releasing paracrines to JG cells What are the ureters tubes that transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder and its layers Ureters Mucosa Transitional epithelium allowing it to be distended and also impermeable to urine Lamina propria dense irregular CT Muscularis undergoes peristalsis for urine Inner longitudinal layer Outer circular layer Adventitia areolar CT What is the urinary bladder? Expandable to store urine and a retroperitoneal organ What is the median umbilical ligament? Remnant of embryological urachus What was it in the fetus? What are the layers found on the urinary bladder? Mucosa contains rugae that allows for distention Transitional epithelium allowing distention and impermeable to urine Lamina propria CT that is vascularized Submucosa dense irregular CT Muscularis forms Detrusor muscle (3 layers) which contracts during micturition and contains the Internal urethral sphincter (involuntary smooth mucle) Adventitia areolar CT or serosa except the superior side which is covered with peritoneum (depending on the location) What is the urogenital diaphragm? Muscle of the pelvic floor that contains What structure does it have? Ext urethral sphincter – voluntary skeletal mucle What is the urethra? Transports urine from urinary bladder to the environment What layers are on the urethra? Mucosa lined with different epithelium depending on sex and region Stratified squamous epithelium (Females) Transitional epithelium (Prostatic urethra) Stratified columnar or pseudostratified columnar epithelium (Membranous urethra) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (proximal Spongy urethra) Stratified squamous epithelium (distal Spongy urethra) Muscularis helps move urine to environment Adventitia CT

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What are the different regions of the male urethra? Prostatic urethra goes through prostate gland Membranous urethra goes through the urogenital diaphragm where the ext urethral sphincter is located Spongy urethra longest portion and within the corpus spongiosum What is the external urethral orifice? Opening at the end of urethra List the structures for the flow of filtrate and urine Female Reproductive System What is the term for structures that have common developmental origins? Homologues What are the primary sex organs called? Gonads What do they produce? Gametes and sex hormones How are they different between the sexes? Ovaries female gonads Ovum oocyte – female gamete Estrogen and progesterone hormones produced by ovaries Testes male gonads Sperm male gamete Testosterone hormones produced by testes The erectile organ that is highly sensitive is known as clitoris in females and glans penis in males The organ that protects and cover the reproductive structure is known as labium majus in females and scrotum in males This reproductive organ secretes mucin for lubrication is known as greater vestibular glands in females and bulbourethral in males What is the perineum? Diamond shaped region from pubis to coccyx What is the urogenital triangle? Anterior triangle of perineum Which organs can be found here? Females: clitoris, urethral orifice, vagina. Males: base of penis, scrotum What is the anal triangle? Posterior triangle of perineum Which organ is found there? Anus Which perineal muscles do you need to know External anal sphincter skeletal muscle External urethral sphincter skeletal muscle What is the primary sex organ for females? Ovaries What are the accessory sex organs for females? Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Clitoris Mammary glands What are the regions of the ovaries? What structures are found in these regions? Ovarian cortex outer region with ovarian follicles (contains follicular cells and ovum at different stages of meiosis) Ovarian medulla inner region of ovary with areolar CT, BV, lymph vessels and nerves What is the differences between meiosis and mitosis? What are diploid cells? What are haploid cells? What phases occur during interphase of meiosis? G 1 Phase

S Phase G 2 Phase What occurs during Prophase I? What is a chromosome? What is a tetrad? What is crossing over and why is it important? What occurs in metaphase I? What occurs in anaphase I? What is random assortment and why is it important? What occurs in telophase I? What occurs in prophase II? What occurs in metaphase II? What occurs in anaphase II? What occurs in telophase II? What is oogenesis? Ovum production What are the cells within oogenesis? How many chromosomes are in each cell? Which process do these cells undergo to be formed? When does meiosis get halted? Oogonium within female embryo which undergoes mitosis during first few months of development, making few thousands of these Diploid (2N) – 23 pairs of chromosomes Primary oocyte 6-7 million of these are developed at birth but only ~1 million are present and arrested at prophase I, all oogonia and many primary oocytes undergo atresia (degeneration) Diploid (2N) – 23 pairs of chromosomes Puberty - ~250,000 primary oocytes left which then ovulates each month completely meiosis I forming Secondary oocyte larger of the 2 daughter cells from meiosis I which contains most of the cytoplasmic material and arrested metaphase II until fertilization Haploid (N) – 23 chromosomes First polar body smaller of 2 daughter cells from meiosis I, may undergo meiosis II forming two polar bodies or disintegrates Haploid (N) – 23 chromosomes Ovum ~400-~500 when fertilization occurs secondary oocyte finishes meiosis II and forms ovum (larger of 2 daughter cells from meiosis II which contains most of the cytoplasmic material) Haploid (N) – 23 chromosomes Second polar body smaller of 2 daughter cells from meiosis II which is degenerated Haploid (N) – 23 chromosomes What is the name of the cell when the sperm fertilizes the egg? Zygote What are the cells that make up an ovarian follicle? What is their general function? Oogonium or oocyte depending on the meiotic stage it is in Granulosa cells supporting cells that does many functions, amongst producing estradiol (type of estrogen)

Theca cells depending on follicular stage may/may not be present, supporting cells that does many functions, amongst producing androstenedione (androgen) for granulosa cells to make estradiol What is folliculogenesis? Development of the follicle What are the different types of follicles and how are they different? What cells do they contain? Primordial follicle forms prior to birth, contains primary oocyte with single layer of squamous granulosa cells to pass nutrients and chemicals signals to oocyte; located at the periphery of ovary near tunica albuginea Primary follicle consists of a larger primary oocyte and with single layer of cuboidal granulosa cells Secondary follicle consist of even larger primary oocyte with multiple layers of cuboidal granulosa cells Theca cells begins to form around granulosa cells Antrum fluid filled cavity from granulosa cells Zona pellucida is formed (glycoprotein gel around oocyte) Preovulatory follicle / Graafian follicle / mature follicle antrum enlarges on one side of the follicle (usually one is formed each month to ovulate), with secondary oocyte (very big) Theca externa outer fibrous capsule rich in BV Theca interna inner layer that secretes androstenedione/testosterone and transport it to granulosa cells to convert to estradiol (via aromatase) Cumulus oophorus granulosa cells around the oocyte Corona radiata innermost granulosa cells around zona pellicida What structure in the ovary appear after ovulation? Corpus luteum remaining follicle within ovary that releases estradiol, inhibin, and mostly progesterone that is regulated by LH to maintain endometrial lining; causes negative feedback What structure does the corpus luteum become, and why? Corpus albicans scar tissue from degeneration of corpus luteum when no pregnancy What are the ligaments that suspends the ovary? Where does it suspend the ovary to? Ovarian ligaments attaches ovary medially to uterus Suspensory ligaments attaches ovary on its lateral side to pelvic wall; contains ovarian arteries, veins, and nerves What are the ligaments that suspends the uterus? Where does it suspend the uterus to? Round ligament from lateral sides of uterus that attach to labia majora by going through the inguinal canal Uterosacral ligament / Sacrocervical ligament connects inferior part of uterus to sacrum What are the uterine tubes called and its general function? Location of fertilization and passageway for oocyte/fertilized eggs to uterus What type of epithelium does it have? Ciliated simple columnar epithelium to propel oocyte towards uterus What are the different regions of the uterine tube? Infundibulum lateral portion of uterine tube that first receives oocyte Fimbriae finger like projections that wave to draw oocyte into uterine tube Ampulla expanded area of uterine tube where fertilization usually takes place Isthmus medial portion of uterine tube that leads to uterus What are the structures that draw the oocyte to the uterine tube called? Fimbriae Where does fertilization usually occur? Ampulla What is the uterus and its general function? Where embryo implants and supports, protects, nourish developing embryo/fetus. Also forms placenta and produces hormone What are the regions of the uterus? Fundus anterior, rounded region between uterine tubes Body major part of uterus Cervix narrow inferior portion of uterus that continues to vagina

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What are the layers of the uterus and their general function? Perimetrium serosa that is continuous with the broad ligament Myometrium contains a thick layer of three layers of smooth muscle Endometrium mucosa of simple columnar epithelium and lamina propria with uterine glands Basal layer/ stratum basalis next to myometrium and is the permanent layer Functional layer / Stratum functionalis layer that sheds during menstration How many days is the sexual cycle for females generally? 28 Name the stages of the ovarian cycle and their definition Ovarian cycle Follicular phase day 1-13 Ovulation 14 Luteal phase 15-28 Name the stages of the menstrual cycle Menstrual cycle 1-5 Menstrual phase 5-14 Proliferative phase 14-26 Secretory phase 26-28 What occurs during the menstrual phase? Day 1-5; when enough menstrual fluid occurs, discharges it into vagina (40ml of blood and 35ml serous fluid). Stratum functionalis is lost leaving only stratum basalis What occurs during the proliferative phase? Day 5-14; after menstruation. Estrogen from follicles increases mitosis of stratum basalis and regrowth of BV in uterus restoring stratum functionalis What occurs during the secretory phase? Day 15-26; endometrium continues to thicken via secretion and fluid accumulation NOT mitosis - Corpus luteum secretes mainly progesterone causing endometrial glands to secrete glycogen - Glands are wider, longer, more coiled - Endometrium is soft, wet, nutritious bed for embryonic development for pregnancy What occurs during the premenstrual phase? Day 26-28; endometrial degeneration when no pregnancy occurs - The corpus luteum becomes corpus albicans, decreasing progesterone o Contractions of spiral arteries in endometrium causing ischemia and necrosis (which includes menstral cramps) o Endometrial glands and BV degenerate causing blood to accumulate in stratum functionalis and forms menstrual fluid What is the vagina and its general function? Birth canal, copulatory organ, and passageway for menstruation (between urethra and rectum); simple cuboidal epithelium (child) but becomes stratified squamous epithelium (adult) What is the hymen? Mucosa folds at vaginal orifice that can be ruptured by intercourse, tampons, medical exams, strenuous exercise What are the layers of the vagina? Mucosa with rugae that is lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium Muscularis made of smooth muscle Adventitia made of fibrous CT What is the vulva? Female external genitalia What structures are part of the vulva? What is the definition of these structures?

Vulva Labia majora thick folds of skin and CT with sweat and sebaceous glands and pubic hair (more lateral than..) Labia minora folds internal to labia majora; hairless with areolar CT What is the vestibule? Region between the labia minora What structures are found within the vestibule and their definition? Vestibule Urethral orifice opening to urethra Vaginal orifice opening to vagina Greater vestibular glands secrete mucin to make mucus as lubricant during intercourse Prepuce external fold of labia minora that covers clitoris during erection Clitoris erectile tissue that provides pleasure during intercourse Corpora cavernosa erectile tissue that make the body of clitoris What are the homologues of the greater vestibular glands and the clitoris in the male? Bulbourethral gland, glans penis What are mammary glands? “breasts” in both sexes but females can secrete breast milk which contain nutrients for infants and defense What structures are found on mammary glands? Mammary glands Areola pigmented area around nipple Areolar glands sebaceous glands within areola to prevent cracking/chapping during nursing Nipple erectile tissue that project from center of breast and to transport milk Adipose tissue Name the structures as an oocyte/ovum passes through from the ovaries to the environment Male Reproductive System What is the primary sex organ for males? Testes What the accessory reproductive organs for males? Primary sex organ: Testes Accessory reproductive organs: Reproductive ducts Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas deferens Ejaculatory duct Urethra Reproductive Glands Prostate Seminal vesicles Bulbourethral glands External Genitalia Penis Scrotum What are the testes and its general function? Make gonads that produces sperm as gametes and androgens

What is spermatogenesis? Male meiosis for sperm production What are the cells involved of spermatogenesis? How many chromosomes are in each cell? Spermatogonia male germ (stem) cell that undergoes mitosis Diploid (2N) – 23 pairs of chromosomes Primary spermatocytes one of the spermatogonium will become a primary spermatocyte to undergo meiosis Diploid (2N) – 23 pairs of chromosomes Secondary spermatocytes formed from primary spermatocyte after meiosis I Haploid (N) – 23 chromosomes Spermatids formed from secondary spermatocytes after meiosis II Haploid (N) – 23 chromosomes Spermatozoa formed through spermiogenesis Haploid (N) – 23 chromosomes What is spermiogenesis? Spermatids differentiate to spermatozoa/sperm What are the regions of a spermatozoa and their general functions? - Head – loses some cytoplasm and elongates o Acrosome cap – forms with digestive enzymes to penetrate secondary oocyte - Midpiece – region with mitochondria to provide energy for - Flagellum tail – develops for mobility Where does sperm mature at and are stored? Epididymis What is the scrotum? Skin covering testes to help control ideal temp (34 celsius) for sperm production and storage What are the muscles found in the scrotum? What are their general functions? Dartos muscle depending on temp, high temp – smooth muscle deep to skin causing the skin to smooth by relaxing, increasing heat loss or low temp wrinkle by contracting to increase the thickness, reducing heat loss Cremaster muscle muscle from internal oblique causing the testes to descend (increase temp) by relaxing or ascend (decrease temp) by contracting depending on temp What are the structures found in the spermatic cord passageway for BV, nerves, vas deferens to the scrotum and testes and its general functions? Vas deferens tube connecting the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct Nerves Blood vessels Testicular arteries bring oxygenated, nutrition-rich, and warm blood to testes Testicular veins bring “deoxygenated”, wastes, and cooler blood from testes Pampiniform plexus veins surrounded the testicular arteries to absorb heat of arteriole blood as it enters the testes Cremaster muscle muscle from internal oblique causing the testes to descend (increase temp) by relaxing or ascend (decrease temp) by contracting depending on temp What two general structures found in the testes and what cells are found in each structures and their general functions? Seminiferous tubules tubules where spermatogenesis occurs Supporting cells / Sustentacular cells / Nurse cells / Sertoli cells / Sustentocytes helps support, protect, nourish the spermatogenic cells and forms blood-testis barrier via tight junctions protecting the sperm from immune system Spermatogenic cells Myoid cells smooth muscle like cells that contract to maybe help squeeze sperm and fluid through tubules and out of testes Interstitial spaces spaces between seminiferous tubules

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Interstitial cells / Cells of Leydig produces androgens including testosterone What is the blood-testis barrier, what forms it, and why is it important? What are the structures and functions as sperm travels from the testes to the environment? Testes Epididymis location of spermatozoa maturation and storage Vas deferens transport sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct Ejaculatory duct merges vas deferens and seminal vesicles found within prostate Passageway for sperm to travel from vas deferens to urethra, location where seminal vesicles seminal fluids enter Urethra Prostatic urethra goes through prostate gland Membranous urethra goes through urogenital diaphragm where the ext urethral sphincter is located Spongy urethra longest portion and within the corpus spongiosum; where secretion from bulbourethral glands enter External urethral orifice opening of urethra to environment What are the epithelium of the different regions of the urethra? Prostatic urethra – transitional epi, membranous urethra – stratified columnar or pseudostratified columnar epi, spongy urethra – pseudostratified columnar epi (proximal) and stratified squamous epi (distal) What are the accessory glands and their general functions? Accessory glands secretes seminal fluid to help neutralize acidic environment of vagina and provide nutrients for sperm Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Bulbourethral glands / Cowper glands What are the seminal vesicles and what do they secrete and their general functions? Posterior of urinary bladder and lateral to ampulla of vas deferens Secrete seminal fluid (60%) that contains - Fructose – energy source for sperm - Bicarbonate – neutralize acidic vagina - Prostaglandins help thin mucus at ext os and cause peristatic waves in uterus and uterine tubes to help sperm toward egg - Prosemenogelin – converted to semenogelin which becomes sticky to prevent semen from draining back from female repro system What is the definition of semen? Seminal fluid + sperm What is the prostate gland and what secretions does it secrete and its general functions? Inferior to urinary bladder Secrete seminal fluid (30%) into prostatic urethra - Citric acid – for sperm health - Prostate-specific antigen – liquidify semen after ejaculation; used as an indicator for prostate cancer potential What is the bulbourethral glands and what secretions does it secrete and its general functions? Within urogenital diaphragm Secrete seminal fluid into spongy urethra - Mucin – to make mucus as a lubricant and alkaline buffer for the urethra prior to ejaculation Which gland secretes the most / least? Prostate gland, bulbourethral gland

What is the penis? Male copulatory organ to deposit semen in vagina What erectile tissue contains venous sinuses/venous spaces around a central artery that engorges with blood during sexual excitement causing erection is it made out of and their general function? Corpora cavernosa dorsal, lateral erectile tissue terminates at shaft of penis Corpus spongiosum ventral erectile tissue containing spongy urethra Glans tip of penis Prepuce skin on the distal part of penis that partially covers glans How many corpora cavernosa do males have vs corpus spongiosum? What is the glans and the prepuce? What is fertilization? Occurs after sperm’s chromosomes (23) and ovum’s chromosomes (23) come together forming a zygote (23 pairs) What are the structures during human development and their definitions? Zygote Blastocyst day 4 after fertilization and is multicellular and reaching the uterus which implants to uterus Embryo week 2-8, continues to form tissues Fetus end of week 8, contains all organs but tissues are still differentiating Neonate child after birth that is less than a month old

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