BIOL 10001 Lab Manual Fall

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Purdue University, Fort Wayne *

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BIOL-100

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Biology

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Dec 6, 2023

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BIOL 10001 Lab Manual Fall Semester 1. The Microscope and Cell Structure: A Study of Plant and Animal Cells (page 2) 2. Diffusion and Osmosis (page 9) 3. Mitosis (page 10) 4. Meiosis (page 17) 5. Diversity of Organisms: Protists (page 24) 6. Diversity of Organisms: Plants (page 30) 7. Diversity of Organisms: Animals (page 38) 8. Climate Change (page 45) 9. Epidemiology (page 47) 10. Urinalysis (page 50) 11. ABO/Rh Blood Typing (page 54) 12. Dissection (page 58)

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 2 Lab 1: The Microscope and Cell Structure A Study of Plant and Animal Cells

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 3 Lab 1: The Microscope and Cell Structure A Study of Plant and Animal Cells Objectives: 1. To become familiar with proper use of a microscope. 2. To view the similarities and differences between plant and animal cells. The Microscope 1. Parts of the Microscope a. An eyepiece or ocular lens is at the upper end of the hollow body tube of the microscope and bears a magnifying lens. Into the revolving nosepiece at the lower end of the body are two or three objectives which also bear lenses; usually a high-power and low-power objective, and, possibly, a third oil-immersion or very high-power lens. b. An adjustable iris diaphragm under the stage regulated the amount of light passing through the aperture (opening on the stage of the scope). Below this is a light source. (A mirror on older scopes). c. The arm and the base are the means of support for the microscope. d. On the side of the arm just above the base are two knobs. The larger is the coarse adjustment knob and the smaller is the fine adjustment knob. Turn the coarse adjustment knob and notice how it moves the body tube. Turn the fine adjustment knob. This moves the tube so slightly that you cannot detect it unless you are examining an object through the ocular. 2. Precautions a. The microscope is a delicate and expensive instrument. It has been carefully assembled and rough treatment may force the functional parts out of alignment. If at any time our microscope is not working correctly or you find a part missing, notify the instructor at once. 3. Rules to Follow When Using the Microscope a. Always use a coverslip when examining objects mounted in water. b. Examine an object with the lowest power objective first. c. If greater magnification is needed, center the object in the field of view before changing to a higher power objective lens. When changing to a still higher power, again position the object of interest in the center of the field of view. d. When changing from low power to high power, be certain that the object does not come in contact with the microscope stage or slide. e. When the high power objective is in place, use only the fine adjustment. f. Adjust the amount of light illuminating the specimen by means of the iris diaphragm. g. Do not force any part of the microscope to move. If a part does not move easily, ask for help. h. Use only lens paper for cleaning lenses. i. Before storing the microscope, remove the slide and place the lowest power objective (scanning lens) in the working position. j. Carry the microscope in an upright position with one hand on the arm and the other hand on the base.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 4 The Plant Cell Plants cells possess a cell wall that surrounds the plasma membrane. It provides structural support and protection. The Animal Cell Animal cells do not possess a cell wall.

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 5 PROCEDURE The Microscope 1. Review parts of the microscope a. Lab Assignment Understanding the Microscope (Questions 1-3) 2. Examine ‘e’ slide under the microscope a. Lab Assignment Understanding the Microscope (Question 4) The Plant Cell 1. Examine a prepared onion root tip slide under low power and then under high power. 2. Fill out Lab Assignment Observations of Plant Cells (Question 5). Be sure to include as much detail as possible. The Animal Cell 3. Examination of Human Cheek Cells (Epithelial Cells) a. Obtain a clean toothpick b. Scrape gently the inside of your cheek with the broad end of a flat toothpick. c. Smear the material on a clean slide. d. Add a drop of iodine stain or methylene blue and add a coverslip. Be careful not to add too much stain. If you get any stain on the table top, clean immediately and thoroughly. Otherwise you or someone else is likely to ruin some clothes. e. Observe under low power. f. Observe the plasma membrane at the outer edge of the general cytoplasm. g. Fill out Lab Assignment Observations of Animal Cells (Questions 6 and 7). Be sure and include as much detail as possible.

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 6 LAB ASSIGNMENT Student Name:___________________________ Class Period:______________________ Understanding the Microscope Word Bank Arm Base Course adjustment knob Eyepiece Fine adjustment knob Iris diaphragm Light source Ocular lens Revolving nosepiece Stage 1. Fill in the names of the parts of the microscope

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 7 2. Write the term that matches each meaning a. Used to handle or carry the microscope __________________________ b. Lenses attached to the nosepiece __________________________ c. Controls the amount of light on the object __________________________ d. Lens you look through __________________________ e. Platform on which slides are placed __________________________ f. Rotates the objective __________________________ g. Control knob used for sharp focusing __________________________ h. Control know used for rough focusing __________________________ 3. List the power of the ocular and objectives of your microscope and calculate the total magnification for the combinations noted. Ocular Magnification Objective Magnification Total Magnification Unaided Eye 0 (no objective lens) 10 4 10 10 10 40 4. Draw the letter e as it appears when observed with each of the following: Unaided 4X 10X 40X Eye Objective Objective Objective Observation of Plant Cells 5. Observation of Plant Cell- Draw with colored pencils in the circle below what you see. Make it as detailed as possible. Label cell wall and nucleus in your drawing. Plant Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 8 Observation of Animal Cells 6. Observation of Human Cheek Cells: (Epithelial Cells) Draw and label the cells you are able to see at a lower magnification. Be sure and make the picture as close to what you actually see as possible. Label the plasma membrane, and any other structures you can see at low power in your drawing. 7. Observation of Human Cheek Cells: (Epithelial Cells) Draw and label the cells you are able to see at a higher magnification. Be sure and make the picture as close to what you actually see as possible. Label the plasma membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm in your drawing. Cell Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ Cell Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 9 Lab 2: Diffusion and Osmosis

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 10 Lab 3: Mitosis

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 11 Lab 3: Mitosis Objectives: 1. To understand the process of Mitosis. Mitosis: Cell Division All large organisms are compose of many cells. Growth of many-celled organisms involves an increase in the number of cells as well as the increase in the size of the new cells. This is the basic mechanism by which a body grows or repairs damage. As a result of mitosis all the cells make a multicellular organism that have the same genetic information. Mitosis is an orderly series of events that results in the equal distribution of the chromosomes that carry the genetic information to the two new cells. The process flows from one stage to the next without interruption. As scientists, we have traditionally divided mitosis into phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. This is an easy way to describe the process, however, it can be misleading if we forget that there is really no pause or interruption in the events. It is also important to recognize that mitosis is a relatively brief period in life of a cell. A typical mitosis will take 2-4 hours to occur. The majority of the life of the cell is spent in the non-dividing condition known as interphase. 1. Interphase- is an active metabolic stage during which the cell performs its function. It carries out metabolic growth and replicates DNA during this stage. However, in interphase a cell is not dividing. The nucleus contains chromosomes but they are a tangled mass of threads, which presents a uniform appearance of tiny dots. Compete chromosomes cannot be seen. The nuclear membrane is present and one of two nucleoli are visible in the nucleus, during this stage the DNA replicates. 2. Prophase- The cell prepares itself for division. One of the things it does is shorten and thicken the chromosomes into structures that we are able to see using a microscope. Although the DNA is duplicated in interphase, we are not able to see this until late prophase. By late prophase you should be able to see that the chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids joined at a point called the centromere. Meanwhile, a series of tiny tubules forms a structure called a spindle. At the same time the nucleoli disappear. Eventually, at the very end of prophase, the nuclear membrane disintegrates and the chromosomes are lying free in the cytoplasm. 3. Metaphase- The chromosomes become attached by their centromeres to the spindle fibers. The chromosomes appear to be tugged by the spindle fibers so that they line up in the middle along the equatorial plate. 4. Anaphase- It is during this phase that equal distribution of genetic information is accomplished. Each centromere divides, and the two identical chromatids of each chromosome are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. 5. Telophase- A number of things occur during this stage. The spindle fibers break down and a nuclear membrane forms around each group of chromosomes. The chromosomes become difficult to see as they uncoil and nucleoli also reform within the nucleus. As cell division is completed, cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) occurs by the formation of a cell plate between the two

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 12 newly formed nuclei. Once separation is complete it is said to have two daughter cells each genetically identical to each other. The daughter cells will then go into interphase where cell growth will begin. PROCEDURE Mitosis using Stained Onion Root Tip 4. Obtain a slide of stained section of an onion root (genus Allium) tip. 5. Using low power, notice the general shape of the root and turn your attention to the end of the root. There is a root cap, a collection of cells that erode away as the root pushes through the soil, and just to the inside of the root cap is an area of cell division called a meristem. 6. Observe cells on high power during interphase. Pay special attention to the nuclear membrane as well as the nucleoli of the cells. a. Lab Assignment Mitosis: Cells in the Onion Root Tip (Question 1) 7. Observe cells in prophase a. Lab Assignment Mitosis: Cells in the Onion Root Tip (Question 2) 8. Observe cells in metaphase a. Lab Assignment Mitosis: Cells in the Onion Root Tip (Question 3) 9. Observe cells in anaphase a. Lab Assignment Mitosis: Cells in the Onion Root Tip (Question 4) 10. Observe cells in telophase a. Lab Assignment Mitosis: Cells in the Onion Root Tip (Question 5) 11. Answer the questions in the Lab Assignment Mitosis: Cells in the Onion Root Tip (Questions 6- 10). Be sure your answers are complete.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 13 Mitosis: Cells in the Onion Root Tip Directions: Draw and label the cells you are able to see at a higher magnification. Be sure to make the picture as close to what you actually see as possible. Label the appropriate parts using the Word Bank. Be as specific as possible in your drawing and descriptions. Word Bank Mitosis chromatin elements root cap meristem Interphase nuclear membrane nucleoli spindle Prophase chromatids equatorial plate centromere poles Telophase chromosomes cell plate Nucleus Anaphase cytokinesis daughter cell 8. Observation of Onion Root Tip Interphase . Plant Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 14 9. Observation of Onion Root Tip Prophase . 10. Observation of Onion Root Tip Metaphase . Plant Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ Plant Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 15 11. Observation of Onion Root Tip Anaphase . 12. Observation of Onion Root Tip Telophase . Plant Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ Plant Type: ______________ Total Magnification used: _________ Describe any other observations that your drawing may not show ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 16 13. During which part of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur? ______________________ 14. When do chromosomes first start becoming visible in mitosis?_______________________ 15. What is the difference between the terms chromosome and chromatid? 16. What is the function of the spindle? 17. What is cytokinesis?

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 17 Lab 4: Meiosis

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 18 Lab 4: Meiosis and Mendelian Genetics Objectives: 1. To understand the process of meiosis and compare similarities and differences to mitosis. 2. To understand how meiosis results in independent assortment of alleles for two different traits (Mendel’s principle of independent assortment). PART ONE: MEIOSIS Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells. The gamete cells are either the egg or the sperm. Each gamete cell contains only one set of chromosomes from either the mom (egg) or dad (sperm). When the egg and sperm unite to form a single cell, the number of chromosomes is restored to the 2 sets. In humans, we have 46 chromosomes, but our gametes only have 23 chromosomes. When you think of the egg (23 chromosomes) uniting with the sperm (23 chromosomes), we get back to the 46 chromosomes. Meiosis begins with a parent cell that is diploid meaning it has 2 sets of chromosomes. A cell referred to as haploid will only have one set of chromosomes. The parent cell undergoes one round of DNA replication (duplication of its DNA) followed by two separate cycles of nuclear division. The process results in four daughter cells that only contain half of the number of chromosomes from the parent cell. Meiosis has both similarities to and differences from mitosis. Remember in mitosis, the process results in cloning the parent cell and creating 2 identical daughter cells. Just like mitosis, meiosis begins with one round of DNA replication in the cells. The process is split into meiosis I and meiosis II. Use the in-class explanation and this image to help you understand the process of meiosis.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 19 PROCEDURE Directions for Chromosome and Allele Movement in Meiosis The circle below represents the parent cell. Complete the drawings (1 and 2) and answer the questions below using this parent cell (1-). 1. Draw the result of Meiosis I below from the parent cell above. 2. Draw the results of Meiosis II from the parent cell above.

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 20 Questions Using your drawings and parent cell above answer the following questions. 1. What is the diploid number for this cell? _______________________________________ 2. What is the haploid number for this cell? _______________________________________ 3. Are the cells after Meiosis I haploid or diploid? _________________________________ 4. Are the cells after Meiosis II haploid or diploid? _________________________________ 5. How is the process of Meiosis different from that of Mitosis in terms of number of chromosomes at the end of the process? ________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. How are the daughter cells produced in Meiosis different from the daughter cells produced in Mitosis? _______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 21 PART 2: INHERITANCE OF ONE TRAIT IN CORN You will be given an ear of corn in which some of the kernels will be purple and some yellow. The allele coding for purple (P) dominates over the one coding for yellow (p). Each kernel is the result of a separate fertilization, so we can quickly determine the phenotypes of many individuals and use this information to deduce the genotypes of the parents. An easy way of determining the probability of an individual inheriting a collection of alleles from each parent for a trait is to draw a Punnett Square. For a monohybrid cross (“monohybrid” meaning we take only one trait/characteristic into consideration, like pea coat color,) we begin by drawing a square with four boxes. The genotype of parent 1 is written along the left side, and the genotype of parent 2 is written across the top. One allele is written per row/column because each parent can give only one of his/her two alleles to each offspring (represented by the four boxes.) In this example, let us say that parent 1 is homozygous recessive for pea coat color (yellow phenotype) and parent 2 is homozygous dominant for pea coat color (purple phenotype). The final step is to fill in each offspring box with the allele at the top of each column and at the left side of each row to visualize what possible allele combinations there are from these two parents’ mating. In this case, 100% of the offspring’s genotypes will be heterozygous for coat color and they will have a purple phenotype.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 22 PROCEDURE 1. With a piece of masking tape mark the row where you begin counting. 2. Count the number of purple and yellow kernels on the whole ear and record your results. Purple kernels= Yellow kernels= 3. What is the ratio of purple to yellow? Round to the nearest whole numbers. Simplify your answer. Questions: 1. Based on the results above, what are the genotypes of the parents that would produce this ratio? Use Punnett Squares to draw the possible phenotypic ratios.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 23 PART 3: INHERITANCE OF TWO TRAITS IN CORN The two traits we will examine are the color of kernels (purple dominates over yellow) and the texture of the surface of the kernel (smooth dominates over wrinkled).You will be given an ear of corn containing some kernels that are purple and smooth, others are purple and wrinkled, other are yellow and smooth and finally some will be yellow and wrinkled. We used a Punnett Square to demonstrate the probability of different allele combinations for a single trait. It can also be used for a dihybrid cross (“dihybrid” meaning two traits/characteristics are being observed at the same time, like seed coat and texture.) Instead of four boxes, however, sixteen will be used. Each parent can donate one allele for each of the two traits to his/her offspring. For example, a parent heterozygous for both seed coat and texture (PpSs) could have four types of gametes: PS, Ps, pS, ps. Because each parent has four possible gametes, there are 16 possible offspring combinations. PROCEDURE 1. With a piece of masking tape mark the row where you begin counting. 2. Count the number of kernels with each of the following traits and record your results. Purple-smooth kernels= ______________ Purple-wrinkled kernels= _____________ Yellow-smooth kernels=______________ Yellow-wrinkled kernels=_____________ Questions: 1. What is the ratio of the four phenotypes? Round to the nearest whole number. Simplify your answer. 2. Based on the results above, what are the genotypes of the parents that would produce this ratio? 3. What are the possible genotypes of individuals with a phenotype of purple-smooth?

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 24 Lab 5: Diversity of Organisms - Protists

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 25 Lab 5: Diversity of Organisms - Protists Objectives: 1. Understand characteristics and examples of Protists. Introduction Protists belong in the Kingdom Protista. They include unicellular and colonial eukaryotes (i.e., they have nuclei in their cells). Some are animal-like, others are plant-like. However, they are neither animals or plants. Protists possess a highly organized nucleus and cellular organelles. Some of them have a locomotory organ (flagella or cilia). They usually dwell in water, damp terrestrial environments, or sometimes as parasites as well. They are believed to be the common ancestral link between plants, animals, and fungi from which these three groups branched out in the process of evolution. They are assumed to be the predecessor to plants, animals, and fungi, and the first eukaryotes. In this lab, we are going to take a closer look at some examples of Protists including Euglena, Spirogyra, Paramecium, and Amoebas.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 26 Procedure/Activity Euglena 1. Observe a prepared slide of Euglena under the microscope. Draw (in as much detail) what you see. 2. Does Euglena possess locomotory organs? If so, describe them. 3. Is Euglena an autotroph, heterotroph, or mixotroph? Explain what this means. 4. How do Euglena reproduce? 5. Explain the biology importance of Euglena? (where do they live, are they parasites, what do we know, etc).

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 27 Spirogyra 1. Observe a prepared slide of Spirogyra under the microscope. Draw (in as much detail) what you see. 2. Does Spirogyra possess locomotory organs? If so, describe them. 3. Is Spirogyra an autotroph, heterotroph, or mixotroph? Explain what this means. 4. How do Spirogyra reproduce? 5. Explain the biology importance of Spirogyra? (where do they live, are they parasites, what do we know, etc).

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 28 Paramecium 1. Observe a prepared slide of Paramecium under the microscope. Draw (in as much detail) what you see. 2. Does Paramecium possess locomotory organs? If so, describe them. 3. Is Paramecium an autotroph, heterotroph, or mixotroph? Explain what this means. 4. How do Paramecium reproduce? 5. Explain the biology importance of Paramecium? (where do they live, are they parasites, what do we know, etc).

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 29 Amoeba 1. Observe a prepared slide of Amoeba under the microscope. Draw (in as much detail) what you see. 2. Does Amoeba possess locomotory organs? If so, describe them. 3. Is Amoeba an autotroph, heterotroph, or mixotroph? Explain what this means. 4. How do Amoeba reproduce? 5. Explain the biology importance of Amoeba? (where do they live, are they parasites, what do we know, etc).

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 30 Lab 6: Diversity of Organisms- Plants

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 31 Lab 6: Diversity of Organisms - Plants Objectives: 1. Understand characteristics and examples of Plants. Introduction Plants are an incredibly important kingdom of organisms. They are multicellular organisms with the amazing ability to make their own food from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. They provide the foundation of many food webs and animal life would not exist if plants were not around. The study of plants is known as botany and in this introduction to plants we look at key topics such as the process of photosynthesis, different types of plants and the different parts of a plant such as roots, stems and leaves. By using the sun’s energy to fix carbon dioxide, plants are able to produce sugars through a process known as photosynthesis. The sugars produced through photosynthesis provide plants with the energy to survive, grow and reproduce. As plants grow they become a food source for animals and other organisms. There are over 400,000 species of plants currently on Earth and the majority of them produce flowers and fruit for reproduction. Plants that produce flowers belong to a group called angiosperms. Other woody plants include a group known as the gymnosperms. This group includes pine trees and their relatives plus other non-flowering trees. Less advanced plants include ferns, lycophytes and mosses. Plants made the move from water to land around 500 million years ago. Living on land is significantly different to living on water and plants have had to make serious changes to their body plans in order survive on land. Land plants separated their body plans into roots, stems and leaves. Roots absorb water and nutrients from soil, stems transfer materials between roots and leaves, and leaves produce sugars that provide the plant with energy to survive. Photosynthesis is a key topic for an introduction to plant biology. It is a process that occurs in plant cells that uses the sun’s energy to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water. The process is simply a series of chemical reactions, probably the most important chemical reactions of Earth. The green color of plants is caused by a molecule called chlorophyll a . Chlorophyll a has the ability to absorb light energy from the sun . The energy that is absorbed is used to force reactions with water and carbon dioxide. The result of these reactions is the production sugars and oxygen gas. Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, converts it into sugar and releases oxygen back into the atmosphere. Over time photosynthesis changed the atmosphere of the Earth by increasing the amount of oxygen in the air. A critical step in the evolution of current plant species was the evolution of vascular tissue . Like humans have vascular tissue that transports blood through our bodies, the majority of species of plants have vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients around their bodies. Before plants evolved vascular tissue, water was only able to enter into a plant by diffusing through the plant’s cells. This meant plants were unable to grow very large because diffusion is not efficient enough to support large plants. Once plants evolved vascular tissue, they were able to grow much larger and which allowed the evolution of the giant trees that now grace the Earth’s lands.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 32 There are still many species on non-vascular plants but the vast majority of plant species contain vascular tissue. Non-vascular plants include organisms such as mosses and liverworts. Some biologists also consider the green algae to be non-vascular plants. Because non-vascular plants rely on diffusion to absorb water they are typically found in moist environments. Vascular plants make up over 90% of all plant species that are currently found on Earth. More primitive vascular plants include lycophytes and ferns. These two groups reproduce with spores rather than seeds and are unable to produce wood. Plants have a relatively simple body plan. A plant can be split into two sections: the underground system known as roots and the above ground system referred to as shoots. The shoots typically include stems , branches and leaves . The evolution of roots was key to the success of plants on land. Roots grow underground in search for water and nutrients in the soil. Often almost half of a plant’s mass is hidden underground in the root system. Roots also help to anchor a plant to the ground so it doesn’t get blown away in the wind or in a flood. They can also be used to store excess food to be used at a later date. Stems and branches c onnect leaves and roots to each other. They are the ‘highways’ that water, nutrients, and sugars travel through to nourish the various parts of a plant. Branches and stems influence the height and size of a plant which in turn affects how much light it will receive from the sun. A stem and branch can be green and fleshy but in many plants, they are brown, woody and covered in bark. Leaves are the main place where photosynthesis occurs. The leaves of the plant have the responsibility of producing enough energy to feed the entire plant. Leaves are optimized for this challenge. A typical leaf is full of a green molecule called chlorophyll a which is the magic ingredient in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll a is able to use energy from the sun to kick start the process of photosynthesis. Leaves are also usually flat and have large surface areas to capture as much light from the sun as possible. ANGIOSPERMS An angiosperm is any plant that produces flowers, fruit, and seeds. They are the most advanced, diverse and abundant group of plants. Angiosperms include the majority of the plants that most people are familiar with such as grasses, orchids, roses, lavender, magnolias, plus the plants that produce the fruits, vegetables, grains and nuts that we regularly eat. Flowers and fruit evolved as a part of a plant’s reproduction. Flowers produce pollen and an ovary. Pollen from one flower is delivered to the ovary of another flower – this is known as pollination. A sperm cell found in a pollen grain fertilizes an egg located in an ovary. Once the egg is fertilized, it develops into a seed and the ovary develops into a fruit. Angiosperms have a close relationship with animals, in particular insects and birds. The pollination of flowers is most commonly assisted by animals. Flowers provide animals with nutritious foods such as nectar and pollen. As animals move between flowers feeding on nectar and pollen, they transfer pollen between flowers. The newly delivered pollen then has the ability to fertilize the egg of the new flower.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 33 Many angiosperms and animals have evolved alongside each other and their survival depends on one another. If the angiosperm goes extinct, the animal loses its food source. If the animal goes extinct, the plant loses it pollinator and cannot reproduce. GYMNOSPERMS Gymnosperms are the closest relatives of angiosperms. They are a group of woody plants that produce seeds but no flowers or fruit. The seeds of gymnosperms are usually found in cones rather than inside fruit. The world’s largest, tallest, oldest and widest organisms are all gymnosperms. They are incredible plants and some species are known to survive for over 2000 years. There are four different groups of gymnosperms. These include the gingko , gnetophyta , cycads and conifers . Conifers contain the majority of species and include the well- known pine trees . FERNS AND LYCOPHYTES Ferns and lycophytes are non- woody plants and also don’t produce seeds, flowers or fruit. Instead, ferns and lycophytes reproduce using tiny structures called spores. These two groups were once the most common plants of Earth but they have since been outgrown by gymnosperms and angiosperms. Still, around 12,000 species of ferns and 1,200 species of lycophytes remain on Earth. The main difference between ferns and lycophytes is in the vascular tissue of their leaves. Ferns have fronds with multiple veins whereas the leaves of lycophytes are very simple and only have one vein. NON-VASCULAR PLANTS Besides lacking tissue, non-vascular plants also lack wood, roots and flowers. This group of often ignored plants includes mosses , hornworts, liverworts and (depending on who you’re talking to) some algae. Compared to vascular plants, non-vascular plants are small and they struggle to grow taller than a few centimeters. Mosses are the most common and best known of the non-vascular plants. They include over 14,000 species that are found all around the world. Liverworts and hornworts are two groups of underappreciated plants. They are flattened plants that are typically only a few millimeters tall but grow sprawling across moist surfaces and are commonly mistaken for mosses and algae.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 34

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 35 Procedure/Activity In your group, go outside and take a picture of 3 different plants you see on campus. Attach these pictures to your lab reports to be turned in. Then, answer the question for each plant. Make sure your pictures are clearly labeled Plant 1, 2, or 3. PLANT 1 Common Name: Scientific Name: Is this plant an algae, fern, moss, gymnosperm, or angiosperm? Describe the characteristics of your plant (color, size, physical description). Where did you find this plant? What is the biological importance of this plant?

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 36 PLANT 2 Common Name: Scientific Name: Is this plant an algae, fern, moss, gymnosperm, or angiosperm? Describe the characteristics of your plant (color, size, physical description). Where did you find this plant? What is the biological importance of this plant?

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 37 PLANT 3 Common Name: Scientific Name: Is this plant an algae, fern, moss, gymnosperm, or angiosperm? Describe the characteristics of your plant (color, size, physical description). Where did you find this plant? What is the biological importance of this plant?

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 38 Lab 7: Animals

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 39 Lab 7: Diversity of Organisms - Animals Objectives: 1. To define five major features of animals. 2. To observe these features in representative animal groups. Introduction The multicellular life style offers a distinct advantage to an organism: differentiation of cells to carry out specific functions. Cells that perform the same functions are grouped together to form tissues, and tissues are grouped together to form organs, which are specialized structures adapted to perform particular functions. There are five primary characteristics that set off the more primitive from the more advanced groups of animals. Below, the characteristics and their variation are discussed: 1. Symmetry : T he distribution of an organism’s body parts about a point, line or plane. For exa mple, spherical symmetry is symmetry about a point and circular symmetry is symmetry about a point within a plane. • Bilateral Symmetry - symmetry about a plane passing along the length of the body and dividing the animal into right and left mirror image halves. Bilaterally symmetrical organisms have not only right and left sides, but also an anterior end (head end) and a posterior end (tail end), and a ventral side (belly) and a dorsal side (back). Bilateral symmetry occurs in the most advanced animals. Name an organism that has this type of symmetry. • Radial Symmetry - symmetry in which a plane can be passed through the length of an animal’s body in more than one direction to produce equal distribution of body parts on both sides of the plane. Radial symmetry is found in organisms that have round or tubular shapes. This type of organization occurs in animals of intermediate complexity. Can you name and organism that has radial symmetry? • Asymmetry - found in organisms that lack organization that could be defined as spherically, radially or bilaterally symmetrical. This type of symmetry occurs in only one primitive animal phylum. Can you name an organism with this type of symmetry? 2. Gut: The presence of a digestive tract and the nature of its structure. • No Gut - the most primitive condition • Incomplete Digestive Tract - this is intermediate in sophistication and is characterized by the presence of a sac-like system with only one opening called the mouth, which serves for both ingestion and elimination. • Complete Digestive Tract - the most advanced system, which includes two openings, the mouth and anus.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 40 3. Cephalization : Animals that have heads containing concentrations of nerve cells are said to exhibit cephalization. If an organism has a head what type of symmetry would be most likely? 4. Body Cavities : Many animals have a cavity in the body called a coelom, which is located between the body wall and the internal organs. The types of body cavities differ among animals, and some lack them. To understand the terms for types of coeloms, it is necessary to know that advanced animals develop from three layers of cells. The outermost is called ectoderm, which gives rise to the skin and nervous system. The middle layer is referred to as mesoderm, which develops into bone, muscle, and other connective tissues. The innermost is known as endoderm, which gives rise to the lining of the gut and to lung tissue. • Coelom - a body cavity completely lined with mesoderm both on the body wall and internal organs. This type occurs in the most advanced animals. • Pseudocoelom - an intermediate condition in which the body cavity is lined partly by mesoderm and partly by endoderm. • No Body Cavity - the most primitive animals are called acoelomates because they lack body cavities. Animals that do not have a body cavity can have a gut. However the gut is not surrounded by an open space between it and the body wall. 5. Segmentation : Animals that are segmented have body parts that are repeated along the length of the body. Formally, segmentation is possession of a linear series of similar body parts distributed along the longitudinal axis of the body. In humans, examples of segmented structures are the vertebrae, ribs, and some abdominal muscles that are revealed in people who work out to develop “washboard abs.”

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 41 Procedure/Activity Examine the slides of animals from the various phyla indicated below. For the five characteristics, fill out the chart at the end of this lab exercise. 1. Phylum: Porifera The Phylum Porifera is composed of sponges, which are considered to be the simplest of animals. The cells of sponges do not form tissues or organs, but are loosely assembled to form an organism. Sponges are usually asymmetrical, lacking left or right sides and anterior or posterior ends. The body wall consists of layers of cells folded to form canals. The canals leading to the inside are termed incurrent canals. Water moves from outside the body into the central cavity through the incurrent canals through small pores in the cells lining the body wall. Collar cells, containing flagella, line part of the inner surface of the body cavity (spongocoel). The motion of the flagella propels water into the large central cavity called the spongocoel and out the external opening or osculum. You may locate amoebocytes within the body wall. These are mobile cells which digest food particles and distribute them to other cells. The wall also contains spicules which are small, hard, separate units that function like a skeleton to maintain the shape of the sponge. They are located in and project from the body wall as small spikes.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 42 2. Phylum: Cnidaria Representatives of this group occur in both the ocean and freshwater. They are mostly small organisms, but some members of this group, acting together, make huge coral reefs. Cnidarians have two basic body plans. The polyp is a cylindrical animal with a mouth surrounded by tentacles; they usually are found attached to a substrate. The medusa form is also known as a jellyfish and is free floating, with a mouth that points downward. As with the polyp, the mouth is surrounded by tentacles. Both polyps and medusae may occur at different stages of the life cycle of the same organism in some cnidarians. In others, only one of the body plans occurs. The tentacles of cnidarians possess stinging cells, called cnidocytes. Each cnidocyte produces a nematocyst, consisting of a fine thread which can be released explosively to entangle and sting prey.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 43 3. Phylum: Platyhelminthes This is the phylum of flatworms, some of which are free-living and others are parasitic forms. Note the gastrovascular cavity, lined with endodermal cells. 4. Phylum: Nematoda ( Ancyclostoma) Members of this phylum are referred to as round worms. Many live in the soil and are important in agriculture, while others are parasites of humans and other animals. 5. Phylum: Annelida The animals in this group are usually referred to as segmented worms, and are named for this feature (annulus = ring). The common earthworm is the best known member of this phylum to most people, but there are many marine annelid worms, too.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 44

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 45 Lab 8: Climate Change

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 46 Lab 8: Climate Change Objective: 1. Students will investigate the effect of simulating the addition of carbon dioxide (and other greenhouse gases) on temperature. NOTE: the plastic wrap is representing carbon dioxide in the model used for the experiment. Greenhouse gases don’t hold in heat exactly the same way as plastic wrap, but using various methods of adding actual carbon dioxide doe sn’t produce consistent results in the small scale. Introduction: Carbon dioxide is a trace gas that has existed in our atmosphere for billions of years. Scientists were not around then to measure the small amounts of CO 2 , but past CO 2 levels can be accurately measured by using ice core samples from glaciers. The gas was trapped in the glaciers as the glaciers formed. The CO 2 levels are measured in parts per million. Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when fossil fuels and other hydrocarbons are burned. Also, carbon dioxide is released through animal respiration. Recently, the highest levels of carbon dioxide on record have been observed. What effect will carbon dioxide have on temperature? PROCEDURE 1. Tape the thermometers into the beakers or other containers, making sure you can read the temperature easily. If you are using lightweight plastic cups, it may help to tape them down for stability. Cover the top of one of the beakers with plastic wrap. Record starting temperature in table below. 2. Put the containers under a heat lamp. NOTE: Place containers the same distance from the lamp. Also, beware that the bulb and shade may get quite hot. 3. Record the ‘after’ temperature of each beaker after 30 minutes. QUESTIONS: 1. Where does carbon dioxide come from in our daily lives? 2. How could we reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere? 3. What impact will rising greenhouse gases have on climate? 30

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 47 Lab 9 : Epidemiology

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 48 Lab 9: Epidemiology Introduction: Organisms that have the ability to cause disease must find the appropriate environment in a host. Pathogens can spread in a variety of ways: by direct contact, by droplets or aerosols, or by vectors such as insects. A common method of pathogen spread in a hospital environment is by direct contact. Most often, disease-causing agents are spread via hands which have not been properly cleaned. Physicians, nurses, lab workers and other health care personnel involved in direct contact with patients must maintain good hygienic technique to prevent such infections. A disease caused by microorganisms that enter the body and multiply in the tissues at the expense of the host is said to be an infectious disease . Infectious diseases that are transmissible to other persons are considered to be communicable . Epidemiology is the study of how, when, where, what, and who are involved in the spread and distribution of diseases in human populations. Whether an epidemic actually exists is determined by the epidemiologist by comparing the number of new cases with previous records. If the number of newly reported cases in a given period of time in a specific area is excessive, an epidemic is considered to be in progress. If the disease spreads to one or more continents, a pandemic is occurring. In this exercise, we will have an opportunity to approximate, in several ways, the work of the epidemiologist with the transmission of a “synthetic infection” via hand shaking. Objectives: 1. To illustrate transmission of a fictitious infectious agent by direct contact. 2. To understand the process involved in tracking the origin of an infectious agent responsible for an epidemic. Procedure: Note : This exercise is a demonstration. We will study the results of the procedure below to work backwards and understand who was initially infected, and how rapidly that infection can be spread. Round 1 Each student in the class was given a number (1-19). Only one student was infected to begin. In round 1, student #1 shook hands with anyone of their choosing. This student chose to shake hands with student #2. Then, it was student #2’s turn. Student #2 chose to shake hands with student #14. Then, it was student #3’s turn. Each student took a turn until the last student, student #19 chose a student to shake hands with. After ALL the handshaking was complete, the results were determined. You can see the results on the spreadsheet below of who was positive for the infection and who was negative. Once again, all the hand shaking occurred, then the results were determined. Round 2 Round 2 is identical to Round 1. We are using the same students. They are shaking hands again. Student #1 started the hand shake again and chose student #4, then student #2 chose until it was student #19’s turn. Once again, after all the round 2 hand shaking was completed, the results were determined. You can see the results after round 2 on the spreadsheet below.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 49

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 50 Lab 10: Urinalysis

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 51 Lab 10: Urinalysis Introduction Urinalysis is used by doctors to assess various factors of urine, including color and pH, that could indicate disease. These factors are normally kept in balance by the kidneys as they filter blood and produce urine but may change under certain conditions like disease or medication use, or even with certain foods. Table 1. Urine Color and Possible Causes Color Diet Drugs Disease Light yellow to amber Normal None None Clear to light yellow Increased fluid intake Alcohol Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus Yellow orange to orange Carrots Antibiotics, pyridium Bilirubin from obstructive jaundice Green Green food dyes, asparagus Diuretics Bacterial infection Red to red brown Beets Senna laxatives Hemoglobin in urine (various cases) Dark wine beets Anti-inflammatory drugs Hemolytic jaundice Brown Rhubarb (large quantity), fava beans, severe dehydration Barbiturates Hemolytic anemia or liver disease; extremely strenuous exercise or muscle injury Brown-black Rhubarb (huge quantity), excessive sorbitol consumption Antidepressants Melanin pigment from melanoma (rare) Normal urine colors range from light yellow to amber, depending upon the concentration of urobilin , the urinary pigment. Certain foods, drugs, diseases, and amount of water intake can cause lighter or darker urine. Table 2. Abnormal Urinalysis Results and Possible Causes Possible Causes Test Result Diet Disease Low pH (<6) High protein diet; cranberry juice Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus High pH (>8) Diet rich in vegetables; dairy products Severe anemia Low Specific Gravity (<1.010) Increased fluid intake Severe renal damage High Specific Gravity (>1.026) Decreased fluid intake; loss of fluids Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus; severe anemia Glucose Present Large meal Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus Protein Present High protein diet Severe anemia

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 52 The pH of a solution is a measure of its free hydrogen ion (H + ) concentration, which indicate acidity or alkalinity. A solution with a pH of 7.0 is neutral. A solution with a pH less than 7.0 is acidic, and a solution with a pH greater than 7.0 is basic. Typically, the pH of normal urine is between 6.0, which is slightly acidic, to 8.0, which is slightly basic. Again, this normal balance can be upset by certain foods or disease. Specific gravity is the density of a solution relative to water, which has a specific gravity of 1.000. The specific gravity of normal urine ranges from 1.010 to 1.026. Specific gravity varies according to fluid intake but can also be affected by disease. Glucose (sugar) should not be detected in normal urine; its presence usually indicated diabetes mellitus , a severe metabolic disorder cause by defective carbohydrate utilization. The kidneys play a key role in glucose homeostasis and are able to reabsorb practically all glucose in their proximal convoluted tubules under normal conditions. If blood glucose is too high, as in diabetes, the kidneys will be unable to reabsorb all glucose, resulting in glucose presence in urine. Glucose may also be present in the urine after a big meal or during times of emotional stress. A very small amount of protein is normally present in urine. Any change in color of a protein test strip indicates an elevated level of protein in urine. Diet and disease can affect protein levels in urine. For example, patients with sever anemia , a condition where the blood lacks an adequate number of red blood cells, usually excrete protein in their urine. Procedure In this activity, you will perform 4 important component tests of clinical urinalysis: color, pH, glucose, and protein. The Low, Normal, and High simulated urine samples are designed to produce results indicative of those characteristics. You will also be provided with two unknown simulated urine samples for urinalysis, and you will be asked to report and interpret the results. 1. Take three plastic urine specimen containers and label Low, Normal, and High. Use the labeled graduated cylinders to transfer 10 milliliters of Low, Normal, and High Simulated Urine to the appropriate labeled containers. 2. Place the containers of simulated urine on the paper towel. Observe the samples, and record the color of each sample in you Laboratory Data Table. 3. Use a pen or pencil to label one end of three of the pH test strips, L, N, and H. 4. Holding the labeled end, dip the L strip into the Low sample. Shake off any excess liquid. Lay the pH strip in front of the Low sample on the absorbent paper towel. Repeat the process with the Normal (N strip) and High (H strip) samples. 5. Compare the color of the test strip to the pH color chart. In your Laboratory Data Table, record the pH of each sample. 6. Label the plastic portion of three Urine Reagent strips L, N, and H. 7. Test each sample for glucose and protein using a Urine Reagent strip, as follows: a. Observe the color of the test squares that are attached at one of the Urine Reagent strips. The greenish square nearest the tip will be used for testing the glucose in the sample; the yellow square will detect protein in the sample.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 53 b. Dip the end of the strip with the test squares into the urine sample, and then withdraw it. Run the end of the strip against the rim of the urine container to remove excess urine. c. Wait 30 seconds, then observe and record the color of the test squares. i. Green square: A negative result produces no color change, indicating normal or low urine glucose. A darkening of the square indicates a higher than normal urine glucose level; the darker the color, the higher the glucose level. ii. Yellow square: A negative result produces no color change, indicating the absence of protein in the urine. A green or blue color indicates the presence of protein in the urine sample. Laboratory Data Table Simulated Urine Samples Urine Test Low Normal High Unknown A Unknown B Color pH Glucose Protein Questions: 1. Using Table 1 and Table 2 in the Introduction, determine which disease(s), if any, may be indicated by the urine test results for Unknown A and Unknown B and why. 2. Place an asterisk next to all abnormal results int eh Laboratory Data table.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 54 Lab 11: Blood Typing

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 55 Lab 11: ABO-Rh Blood Typing Introduction By volume, blood tissue is approximately 55% plasma and 45% cells. Plasma is a straw- colored liquid consisting of 90% water and a variety of salts and proteins important for maintaining osmotic balance, buffering against pH changes, maintaining blood viscosity, transporting certain materials, and for blood clotting when a blood vessel is injured. There are three major types of blood cells – red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets. Red Blood Cells , the most numerous cells in the blood, carry oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. A red blood cell is a biconcave disk with a thin center. This shape provides a large surface area for diffusion of oxygen. Red blood cells contain the protein hemoglobin. Iron is incorporated into the hemoglobin molecule. When blood travels through the lungs, the oxygen in the lungs combines with the iron in hemoglobin. When the blood moves through the body’s capillary system, the oxygen carried in the red blood cells is released from the iron in the hemoglobin to the other cells of the body. Red blood cells’ flexibility allows them to pass through even the smallest blood vessels. White Blood Cells make up only about 1% of the blood volume. They are an important part of the immune system . Their primary function is to provide defense3 against invaders in the body, which may include bacteria, parasites, fungi, and viruses. White blood cells may attack a foreign body directly, they may produce antibodies that identify, attach to, and neutralize a foreign body, or they may trigger other cells to act in destroying the foreign body. Platelets perform a vital function in the process of coagulation, or blood clotting, which occurs when a blood vessel is injured. Blood Types Although the basic composition and function of blood in each of us is the same, there are different human blood types. The cell membrane of red blood cells, like that of other cells, has molecules that project from its surface. Some of the molecules function as identification badges, allowing the immune system to recognize the cell as a normal component of an individual’s body. If blood from a person whose red cells have different surface molecules is injected into someone, those molecules are recognized as antigenic , or foreign to the body. The immune system attacks the antigens and attempts to destroy them and the cells that carry them. This is why transfusion with an incompatible blood type is harmful. The recipient’s body recognizes the antigens on the transfused red blood cells as foreign and attacks and destroys the cells. For that reason, donated blood is thoroughly test for A, B, O, and Rh antigens and is transfused only into compatible recipients. The ABO Blood Groups The ABO blood groups (types) result from the presence or absence of two antigens, A and B, on the surface of red blood cells. If antigens are present very early in life, the immune system recognizes those antigens as ‘self’ and will not generate an immune response to them. As a result, the body does not generate antibodies to any A and B antigens present on its own blood cells. However, the immune system does produces antibodies to any A and B blood antigens not present on the organism’s own cells. Type A blood has the A antigen on its red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the plasma. Type B blood has the B antigen on its red blood cells and A antibodies in the plasma. Type AB blood has both

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 56 A and B antigens on the red blood cells and no antibodies in the plasma. Finally, Type O blood has neither A not B antigens on the red blood cells and both A and B antibodies in the plasma. These antibodies are present even if the person has not had any foreign blood introduced into their body. It is hypothesized that the antibodies are present because of similarity between the A and B blood antigens and other antigens present in the environment. If two antigens are similar enough, the antibodies generated to one antigen will also recognize the other. The relationships of the ABO blood types to the presence of antigens and antibodies in the blood are summarized in the table that follows. The Rh Blood Groups Another important antigen found on the surface of blood cells is the Rh factor. The Rh antigen is actually a whole group of closely related antigens. Blood containing an Rh antigen is said to be Rh positive (Rh+); blood lacking the antigen is said to be Rh negative (Rh-). Unlike the case for the ABO antigens, the production of Rh antibody requires prior exposure to the antigen, such as would occur in an Rh- pregnant woman carrying a fetus that was Rh+. Blood Group Red Cell Antigen Present on Cells Antibody that Recognizes Cells A A Anti-B B B Anti-A AB A and B Neither O Neither Anti-A and Anti-B Blood Typing Incompatibility: Using Agglutination to Determine the Blood Type of a Sample Agglutination Blood Typing Incompatibility: Using Agglutination to Determine the Blood Type of a Sample Agglutination is the clumping of particles. If a blood sample interreacts with a specific antibody (i.e., blood type A interacting with Anti-A antibody serum), then agglutination will occur. In today’s lab, you will use the presence or absence of agglutination to determine an unknown blood type in a sample of synthetic blood. To begin, you will add one drop of blood sample in each well of a blood typing slides, labeled, A, B, and Rh. You will then add a synthetic antibody serum to each well as follows: Labeled Well on Blood Typing Slide Synthetic Antibody Serum Added A Anti-A B Anti-B Rh Anti-Rh Interpreting the Results After mixing the specific serum with the blood sample, you will observe the presence or absence of agglutination in each well. Clumping or agglutination indicates that the blood has reacted with a specific antibody serum (Anti-A, Anti-B, or Anti-Rh) and therefore has antigens that are incompatible with that type of antibody. If the blood does not agglutinate when mixed with a specific antibody serum, the results indicate that the blood does not have the antigens biding the specific antibody in the reagent.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 57 Procedure In this lab, you will determine the blood type of four different synthetic blood samples using antisera to the A, B, and Rh (D) antigens that exist on human red blood cells. The procedure for the blood test is the same that would be used for a real blood test, but, for convenience and safety, the blood and antisera are synthetic and contain no biological materials. 1. Using the dropper vial, place a drop of the Sample 1 synthetic blood sample in each well of the blood typing slide. Close the cap on the dropper vial. To prevent cross contamination, always close the cap on one vial before opening the next vial. 2. Add a drop of synthetic anti-A serum (blue) to well A. Close the cap. 3. Add a drop of synthetic anti-B serum (yellow) to well B. Close the cap. 4. Add a drop of synthetic anti-Rh serum (clear) to well Rh. Close the cap. 5. Using a different-colored mixing stick for each well (blue for anti-A, yellow for anti-B, and white for anti-Rh), gently stir the synthetic blood and antiserum drops for 30 seconds. Remember to use a new mixing stick for each sample to avoid contamination of your samples. 6. Examine the resulting films of liquid mixture in the well. If a film is uniform in appearance, there is no agglutination. If the sample is granular, agglutination has occurred. 7. Fill in the column for Sample 1 in the following Data Table, answering yes or no as to whether agglutination occurred with each antiserum. 8. Thoroughly rinse the blood typing slide and then repeat steps 1 through 7 for synthetic blood Samples, 2, 3, and 4. Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Anti-A Anti-B Rh Blood Types Questions 1. Tom and Jane participate in a Red Cross blood drive. Both are first-time donors. As part of the screening process, their blood is typed. Tom is A+. Jane is AB+. a. What ABO antibody is found in Tom’s blood? b. What ABO antibody is found in Jane’s blood? 2. The same Tom and Jane’s blood donations are sent to a processing center where the blood cells are separated from the plasma in each of the two samples. The separated cells and plasma are then sent to a hospital. A blood research wishes to use Tom’s blood in an attempt to extract and identify the A antigen. Should she attempt the extraction process on his blood cells or his plasma?

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 58 Lab 12: Dissection

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 59 Lab #12. Organ Systems Dissection of the Fetal Pig Objectives: 1. To identify various organs and organ systems of the fetal pig and to compare them with the corresponding human structures. I. Introduction The specimens of pigs used in this laboratory exercise are fetal pigs. These animals are readily available, since farmers find it profitable to breed any female which they plan to sell; pig fetuses are by-products of the slaughter houses. The period of gestation is about 112-115 days. At birth the pigs vary from 12-14 inches in length. As laboratory specimens for dissection, fetal pigs have several advantages. They are relatively inexpensive, small and do not require much storage space. Because these animals are mammals, their structures are similar to the corresponding structures of humans. As the pig is dissected, the structures identified should be compared with those of the human. Dissection is not merely "cutting" the animal, but a systematic technique of bringing into view structures which, in their normal positions, cannot readily be seen. Follow instructions exactly. Do not cut or remove any structure unless directed to do so. At the conclusion of each laboratory period, clean up the working area thoroughly. Wrap the pig in wet paper towels and place in plastic bag provided. Label the bag with your name and tie it tightly with string to prevent desiccation (drying). It is important to be familiar with certain anatomical terms in reference to your pig dissection. The terms right and left always refer to the pig's right and left. Anterior and cranial refer to the head end; posterior or caudal to the tail end; dorsal or superior to the back side; and ventral or inferior to the belly side. Lateral refers to the side; medial to the position of a structure nearer the midline of the body. The pigs you will dissect have been doubly injected to help identify circulatory structures. The arteries are filled with red latex and the veins with blue latex. Since you will work in groups, it may be helpful for one person to read the directions while others perform the dissection. It is important that everyone have an opportunity to view and identify each organ and that all who wish to try dissection do so.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 60 II. Dissection of the Digestive System of the Fetal Pig A. Place the pig, ventral surface up, on the dissecting tray. To spread the legs of the specimen, tie a length of cord from one ankle, under the tray, to the other ankle. B. Make the following incisions: 1. Make an incision with the scalpel through the skin from the small, hairy papilla on the upper part of the throat down the midline to a point just anterior (cranial) to the umbilical cord. 2. Continue to deepen the incision very carefully, cutting through the cartilaginous sternum, until the body cavity is reached. Be careful not to cut the large veins and arteries or to avoid cutting organs in the body cavity. 3. If your specimen is female: Continue your cut posteriorly of the umbilical cord; cut around both sides of the cord. Direct both cuts into one just caudal to the cord, and continue back between the hindlegs If your specimen is male: Instead of bringing the cuts together behind the cord, continue the two incisions caudally between the hindlegs. This avoids cutting the penis, located beneath the skin C. Pull the flap that contains the umbilical vessels back carefully and observe the umbilical vein, which runs from the umbilical cord to the liver. D. Tie a string around the umbilical vein and cut it between the thread and the flap. The thread will enable quick location of the severed vessel. 1. Pull the ventral flap further back and observe the two umbilical arteries, injected with red latex on the inner surface. 2. Locate the urinary bladder, the large sac situated between the two umbilical arteries, at the posterior (caudal) portion of the abdominal cavity. E. To enlarge the exposed cavities, make the following incisions, which will facilitate subsequent dissections and, at the same time, leave the diaphragm (see below) intact. 1. Just anterior to the hindlegs and just caudal to the front legs, cut into and through the body wall in order to make lateral flaps, which can be pinned down out of the way

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 61 The Digestive System 1. Locate the large, reddish-brown colored liver posterior to the diaphragm. Note that the superior surface of the liver is convex to match the concavity of the diaphragm. 2. Lift up the right lobe of the liver and locate the gall bladder, the small, pear-shaped sac embedded in the right central lobe on the posterior side of the liver. The cystic duct from the gall bladder and the hepatic duct (omit) from the liver unite to form the common bile duct which empties into the duodenum, which is the anterior portion of the small intestine. 3. The umbilical vein, previously observed, can be found entering the liver to the left of the gall bladder. 4. Lift up the liver to expose the stomach, which is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity. Find where the esophagus enters the stomach. 5. Locate the small intestine, beginning at the posterior end of the stomach. The small intestine is a long, coiled tube, divided into three (3) regions: The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It is difficult to tell these sections apart based on external appearance, but the anterior and posterior ends are the duodenum and ileum, respectively. 6. Locate the spleen, the long, narrow, flat, dark organ to the left of the stomach. 7. The pancreas lies in the angle between the curve of the stomach and the duodenum. The greater part of the gland is located behind the stomach. The pancreas is connected to the duodenum by the pancreatic duct. This is small and need not be identified. 8. Find the attachment of the small intestine to the large intestine. a. Where the small intestine joins the large there is a blind pouch, the cecum. In humans, the cecum is smaller having diminished to the structure called the appendix. b. The first part of the large intestine or colon in the fetal pig is visible as a compact, coiled mass on the left side of the abdominal cavity.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 62 c. The posterior portion of the large intestine is the rectum. Locate this structure passing from the coiled colon as a straight tube into the pelvic cavity. The external opening of the rectum is the anus. d. Fill in the blanks below with the appropriate organ

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 63

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 64 The Respiratory System A. Make a median, longitudinal incision through the muscles in the neck in order to expose the larynx and trachea. Do not sever the blood vessels or nerves located on either side of the trachea. Use Figure 1 as a guide for identification of these structures. 1. The trachea contains rings of cartilage in its walls. Determine whether these rings are complete on the dorsal surface of the trachea. B. The ventral neck muscles and the cervical part of the thymus gland cover the thyroid gland, the small, dark gland which lies on the upper trachea. Separate the muscles and remove part of the thymus to expose this gland. D. Examine the interior of the thoracic cavity. 1. Note that the thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral pleural cavities, which contain the lungs. The pericardial sac, which contains the heart is located in the space between the lungs. E. Remove (if necessary) the thymus tissue in the thoracic cavity to study the lungs.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 65

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 66 The Circulatory System The blood vessels of a fetal mammal, such as the pig, closely resemble those of the adult human. There are two modifications for fetal life. The placenta is an organ for exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between the circulatory systems of the mother and the fetus. This exchange requires a placental circulation by way of the umbilical cord. Because the lungs are not functional before birth, the fetal circulation bypasses the lungs. The arteries of the fetal pig have been injected with red latex and the veins with blue latex. A. Heart 1. Observe the pericardium surrounding the heart. After determining the structure to which it is attached, remove the parietal layer of the pericardium. 2. The heart is tilted so that the greater part of the right ventricle lies directly in front, along the ventral surface of the heart. The left ventricle forms the apex of the heart. 3. The right and left atria lie anterior to the ventricles. 4. The coronary artery is located in grooves on the surface of the heart. It carries blood to the heart muscle.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 67 Urogenital System The organs of the urinary system of the fetal pig are very similar to those in the human. A. Observe the paired kidneys on the dorsal body wall of the pig. They will initially be hidden beneath connective tissue. The reproductive organs of the fetal pig are similar to those of the human. Note, however, the differences in the structure of the uterus and the lack of an ejaculatory duct in the male. Although you will dissect the reproductive system of only one sex, you are responsible for the systems of both sexes. Therefore, carefully study the reproductive structures on a fetal pig of the opposite sex that has been dissected by another group.

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Determining the sex of your fetal pig. If the pig is female, it will have a urogenital papilla, which is a flap of skin located ventral to the rectum at the opening of the vagina. If it is male, it will have a small opening on the abdomen through which the penis can pass to the outside from its usual position beneath the skin. A male will also have a scrotum, a sac containing the testes. B. The Male Reproductive System 1. Locate the scrotum, the sac visible under the skin ventral to the anus. Early is fetal development, the testes are located in the abdominal cavity below the kidneys. Later, they migrate before birth through the inguinal canal into the scrotum.

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Purdue Fort Wayne Biology 10001 69 Fetal Pig: Structures and Functions Abdominal Cavity diaphragm movement causes air to enter or leave lung liver processes digested food, makes bile, etc. stomach food digestion small intestine absorption of nutrients large intestine waste storage and water regulation rectum colon pancreas makes digestive enzymes and hormones that regulate blood sugar spleen reservoir for blood cells Neck trachea air passage to lungs thyroid hormone to maintain metabolism Chest pericardial sac membrane surrounding the heart lungs gas exchange between blood and air heart pumps blood throughout the body right atrium receives blood from the body left atrium receives blood from the lungs right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs left ventricle pumps blood to the body coronary vessels carry blood to the heart ********************************************************************** Urinary System kidneys remove waste products from the blood ********************************************************************** Female Reproductive System ovaries produce ova (eggs) Male Reproductive System scrotum sac containing the testes testis sperm and hormone production

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BIOL 10001 Lab Manual Fall

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