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Cardiopulmonary System 1 CARDIOPULMONARY SYSTEM by [Name] Institution Course Instructor Due Date

Cardiopulmonary System 2 A Report on Anatomy and Physiology of the Cardiovascular and Respiratory System Introduction The report looks into a case study of a disease that affects the cardiopulmonary system and also investigates the pathologies of the system. It starts by evaluating an overview of the circulatory system, where the structure of the mammalian heart is discussed. It also analyses the cardiac cycle and explains how it is controlled the heart’s electrical activity. In this section, different types of blood vessels are evaluated, and a comparison is given between them and finalized by describing the structure and function of the red blood cells. The second part discusses the respiratory system, which identifies the gross anatomical structure of the respiratory system and relates it to function. It also explains how the microscopic structure of an alveolus relates to its function. The paper finishes by discussing a case study of a patient with a chronic pulmonary disease. 1. An Overview of the Circulatory System 1.1 The Mammalian Heart's Structure The heart is an intricate bodily organ that circulates blood through three different sections of the circulatory system. The circulatory system's pulmonary, systemic, and coronary divisions are just a few of their divisions (Popescu et al., 2020). The primary artery coming from the heart is immediately used for coronary circulation, which is internal to the heart. The heart circulates blood throughout the body, supplying the lungs and other organs with oxygen-rich blood (Peate, 2021). Since blood must travel a long way through the pulmonary and systemic circuits, the heart's muscle is asymmetrical. Being responsible for sending blood to the pulmonary circuit, which also allows blood to flow to all the other body parts, causes the right side of the heart to be smaller and thicker than the left.

Cardiopulmonary System 3 The human heart has four chambers, including two atria and two ventricles, and is divided into several divisions. The ventricles and the right and left atriums are additional divisions of the body (Fan et al., 2020). As the ventricles of the heart contract, blood is delivered to the atria. The coronary sinus, which also receives blood from the superior vena cava, allows deoxygenated blood to exit the heart and enter the right atrium. The suitable atrioventricular valve, which aids in preventing blood backflow, sends the deoxygenated blood to the right ventricle (McDonagh et al., 2021). The pulmonary arteries transport the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, where it is oxygenated before being transported back to the heart. When blood passes through the pulmonary arteries and the suitable semilunar valve closes, blood cannot return to the right ventricle. The pulmonary veins pass through the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle. They are then forced out through the body's main artery, the aorta, delivering oxygenated blood to the left atrium from the lungs. Organs, muscles, and tissues receive oxygenated blood from the aorta (Molnar and Gair, 2020). The aortic semilunar valve closes to stop blood from flowing back into the left ventricle after blood is pushed from the left ventricle into the aorta. This is clearly shown in the figure below:

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Cardiopulmonary System 4 Figure 1: Mammalian Heart: Source; A Level Notes 1.2 The Cardiac Cycle and how it is initiated and Controlled by the Heart’s Electrical Activity The cardiac consists of the actions the heart takes during a heartbeat. The sinoatrial node, also referred to as the natural pacemaker, tends to coordinate the heart's electrical activity, which starts and controls it. The sinoatrial node produces and sends the atrial systole phase of the cardiac cycle, thus simulating the atrial muscles to contract. The atrioventricular node is a relay and sends electrical impulses to the ventricles. The ventricular systole phase of the heart cycle is

Cardiopulmonary System 5 thus created when the ventricles contract after receiving the electrical impulses. A network of specialized fibers also quickly and effectively transmits electrical impulses across the ventricles and conducts the electrical impulses. The main pumping power of the heart is produced by the ventricles contracting, which also forces blood into the arterial circulation. A rhythmic and well- coordinated cycle of contraction and relaxation results from the electrical impulses returning to the sinoatrial node and repeating the process. Figure 2: The Cardiac Cycle (Source; Biology for Majors Types of Blood Vessels The human body has three main blood vessel types: arteries, veins, and capillaries. The differences between the blood vessels can be explained based on their structure, function, and the type of blood they transport. Arteries Capillaries Veins Function Carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body Connect the arteries and the veins Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart Structure Have thick walls Have tiny vessels Have thin walls Type of Blood Oxygenated blood Transport waste Deoxygenated blood

Cardiopulmonary System 6 Transported products between the body and the cells 1.3 Structure and Function of the Red Blood Cells Most blood cells in a person's body are red blood cells. From the lungs, they transport oxygen to the body's tissues and other organs. They are also referred to as erythrocytes. Red Blood Cell Structure Have a biconcave shape There is the presence of a nucleus Have hemoglobin which gives them the red color Function Carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and organs Help to maintain blood pressure and pH Transport carbon dioxide and waste products to the lungs for excretion The figure below represents the structure of the red blood cells as illustrated in the table above:

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Cardiopulmonary System 7 Figure 3: The Red Blood Cells (Source; Short Notes on Erythrocytes- Definition, Structure, and Function) 2. Understanding the Respiratory System 2.1 The Gross Anatomical Structures of the Respiratory System The respiratory system comprises various major anatomical components that work together to provide the organism with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. Some respiratory structures include the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli, and diaphragm (Mondor, 2019). The nose is an opening near the mouth that pulls the air outside the body into the respiratory system. It also filters the air and ensures it is free of dust. The nose also has hair to warm the air entering the body and moisten it. The nasal cavity is filled with hair and mucus-secreting glands (Camarinho et al., 2022). They aid in filtering and moistening the air that is breathed. The Pharynx, commonly known as the Throat, is a tube that carries air from the Mouth into the Nose and Trachea (Alkahlout et al., 2021). It is a familiar passage that allows air and food to pass through and links the nasal cavity and larynx. The larynx is called the voice box and helps regulate the airflow and protect the windpipe from food and other foreign particles entering. The trachea connects the larynx to the lungs and is lined with ring-like cartilage (Warburton, 2021). The cartilages are essential in keeping it open and preventing it from collapsing. The lungs' alveoli, tiny air sacs, are also a part of the general anatomical structure. This includes the area where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs. A network of capillaries surrounds this area to facilitate the effective passage of gases. The diaphragm acts as a separation joint between the thorax and abdomen and plays a critical role in breathing (Liu et al., 2023). It contracts and relaxes, thus helping to change the thorax volume during the gaseous exchange. All the structures function together, thus taking oxygen into the body and removing

Cardiopulmonary System 8 carbon dioxide to regulate airflow. An example of a gross anatomical structure of the respiratory system is shown in the diagram below: Figure 4: Gross Anatomical Structures of the Respiratory System (Source; Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System) 2.2 The Microscopic Structure of an Alveolus and how it relates to its Function The alveoli include tiny, balloon-shaped air sacs in the lungs of the human body. Their microscopic structure is closely related to their function within the respiratory system (Santacroce et al., 2020). Their primary function in the human body includes a gaseous exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide in and outside the bloodstream. The alveoli have a thin layer

Cardiopulmonary System 9 of epithelial cells that tend to be surrounded by tiny capillaries (Tchoukalova et al., 2022). The walls allow efficient diffusion of gases between the air and the bloodstream. The alveoli are also highly elastic, making them stretch and recoil, which helps accommodate lung volume changes (Gattinoni et al., 2019). They are also rounded and produce surfactant, which helps reduce the surface tension, thus protecting them from collapsing. The thin walls and the surfactant are thus essential in allowing gases to diffuse efficiently and regulating lung pressure. An example of the microscopic structure of an alveolus and how it relates to its function is shown in the figure below. Figure 5: The Microscopic Structure of an Alveolus and how it relates to its Function (Source; How does the Structure of the Alveoli relate to its Function)

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Cardiopulmonary System 10 2.3 Changes in ventilation at rest and after exercise and how they relate to Homeostasis Homeostasis includes the ability of an organism or system that helps maintain a stable internal environment despite the changes that occur in the external environment. During an exercise, the body undergoes various physiological changes including increased heart rate, breathing rate, and body temperature. The changes are of much significance in helping to meet the muscle's energy demands and make the body deviate from a set point. The body tends to restore homeostasis using various mechanisms, including temperature regulation. Recent research shows that the body's core temperature can rise during exercise due to increased metabolism and muscle activity (Hymczak et al., 2021). The body increases blood flow into the skin, which helps in allowing heat to be dissipated through sweating and regulation and also helps in bringing the temperature back to its set point. The body also works to restore its mechanism through heart rate and blood pressure, which increases during exercise to increase the rate of delivering more oxygen and nutrients to the muscles. After an exercise, the levels can return to normal since the body does not need them again. Ventilation is a vital activity in the human body since it helps to maintain the process of homeostasis. Ventilation occurs at a low rate to meet the body's demands for oxygen (Pleil et al., 2021). During exercise, the ventilation rate increases to meet the working muscles' oxygen requirements. When the body is at rest, it needs low oxygen intake, thus making the ventilation rate slow and shallow (Rubalcaba et al., 2020). This helps the body exchange enough oxygen and carbon dioxide to help maintain essential metabolic processes. When the body exercises, it requires high oxygen intake, thus increasing the ventilation rate to meet the oxygen requirements (Pauly, 2021). The rate of breathing thus increases to increase the tidal volumes as well. This is

Cardiopulmonary System 11 crucial because it enables a higher exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, supporting the body's energy needs. The changes during ventilation are thus regulated by the nervous system and the muscles participating in breathing (Drigas and Mitsea, 2022). The nerve impulses are activated due to the increased demand for oxygen, which stimulates the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles to contract more forcefully and faster. This is essential in increasing the air being taken inside and the one being exhaled, thus increasing ventilation. 3. Investigating the Pathologies of the Cardiopulmonary System An example of a pathology of the cardiopulmonary system is a chronic pulmonary disease characterized by continuous obstruction of airflow. The disease is caused by smoking though it can also be due to exposure to environmental pollutants. A case study is taken where Mr. Leonard has had a long history. For the past three years, he has experienced various symptoms, including shortness of breath, coughing with phlegm, and wheezing. Mucus has also blocked the airway leading to inflammation. Mr. Leonard is also getting tired very quickly and experiencing tightness in the chest during physical activities. He was diagnosed with the chronic pulmonary disease after taking various tests, such as spirometry, which showed reduced lung airflow. The tests also revealed that the disease had destroyed air sacs. The tests also revealed that his lungs were not exchanging gases effectively. Mr. Leonard is advised to take a combination of medications, including antibiotics, and change his lifestyle. He is advised to stop smoking and stop exposing himself to environmental pollutants. Mr. Leonard is also taken to a rehabilitation center to help him quit smoking. The treatment tends to be effective, and Mr. Leonard can return to normal activities. He has had a chronic condition and will need to continue with his medications to maintain his health. The case study shows that diseases affecting the cardiopulmonary system can impair the lungs' functions, thus reducing the quality of life.

Cardiopulmonary System 12 Relate the symptoms you talk about to the heart or the lung anatomy and say why it has gone wrong The chronic pulmonary disease has various effects on the heart, including pulmonary hypertension. This includes increased blood pressure in the blood vessels supplying the lungs. It is an additional strain on the heart and, at most times, leads to heart failure. The disease also leads to an increase in the risk of arrhythmias which are caused by the deprivation of oxygen and chronic inflammation. People suffering from chronic pulmonary disease tend to have an increased workload on the heart due to reduced lung function and increased respiratory effort. This leads to a strain on the heart, which increases its workload. Mr. Leonard also suffers from chronic pulmonary disease and feels chest pains caused by an increased workload on the heart. Conclusion Therefore, knowing that the cardiopulmonary system is essential in maintaining life since it transports oxygen and nutrients to the cells and removes wastes and carbon dioxide. The cardiopulmonary system's various parts work together to provide proper circulation and respiration. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle and regular exercise is also essential to maintain the cardiopulmonary system functioning correctly. The cardiopulmonary system is also essential in helping to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the tissues in the body and also in helping to remove waste products. The system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs. The research has been of much significance in helping to understand heart and lung diseases, which are among the leading globally. Learning about the cardiopulmonary system is essential in understanding diseases and how they develop and progress in the body, thus helping people make informed decisions about their lifestyle and health choices. It is also essential in helping medical practitioners diagnose and treat the conditions.

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Cardiopulmonary System 13

Cardiopulmonary System 14 References Alkahlout, M.A., Abu-Jamie, T.N. and Abu-Naser, S.S., 2021. Expert system for throat problems using SL5 object. International Journal of Academic Information Systems Research (IJAISR), 5(5), pp 62-78. Camarinho, R., Pardo, A.M., Garcia, P.V. and Rodrigues, A.S., 2022. Epithelial morphometric alterations and neurosecretory responses in the nasal cavity of mice chronically exposed to hydrothermal emissions. Environmental Geochemistry and Health , 44 (8), pp.2783-2797. Fan, J.L., Su, B., Zhao, X., Zhou, B.Y., Ma, C.S., Wang, H.P., Hu, S.D., Zhou, Y.F., Ju, Y.J. and Wang, M.H., 2020. Correlation of left atrial strain with left ventricular end-diastolic pressure in patients with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. The international journal of cardiovascular imaging , 36 , pp.1659-1666. Gattinoni, L., Giosa, L., Bonifazi, M., Pasticci, I., Busana, M., Macri, M., Romitti, F., Vassalli, F. and Quintel, M., 2019. Targeting transpulmonary pressure to prevent ventilator-induced lung injury. Expert review of respiratory medicine , 13 (8), pp.737-746. Google. (n.d.). Google search. Retrieved February 8, 2023, from https://www.google.com/search?q=structure%2Band%2Bfunction%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bred %2Bblood%2Bcells&sxsrf=AJOqlzWOChpNGtYkgmywNyH8gUMTE9hmzw %3A1675854296546&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjNy6ng44X9AhUh VqQEHW6BCKwQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw#imgrc=TFVtiFFNPZtMCM

Cardiopulmonary System 15 Google. (n.d.). Google search. Retrieved February 8, 2023, from https://www.google.com/search?q=gross%2Banatomical%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Bthe %2Brespiratory%2Bsystem&sxsrf=AJOqlzXAH61SRkw_L4xPW7UrleVbPE6CZQ %3A1675854459699&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiY0o- u5IX9AhVPQaQEHUR3DpMQ_AUoAXoECAIQAw&biw=531&bih=647&dpr=1#imgrc =S-X_P-Z8jKvfDM Google. (n.d.). Google search. Retrieved February 8, 2023, from https://www.google.com/search?q=the%2Bmicroscopic%2Bstructure%2Bof%2Ban %2Balveolus%2Band%2Bhow%2Bit%2Brelates%2Bto%2Bits %2Bfunction&sxsrf=AJOqlzUl1UEZ6u9d1gMQRHMj_aY-q9Uvpw %3A1675854764775&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjc- su_5YX9AhXvTKQEHasdDE0Q_AUoAXoECAIQAw#imgrc=jTvcdTGqND9V2M Gupta, A.K. and Kumar, S.B., 2022. Reticulocytes-mother of erythrocytes. In The Erythrocyte-A Unique Cell . (pp. 83-96) London: IntechOpen. Hymczak, H., Gołąb, A., Mendrala, K., Plicner, D., Darocha, T., Podsiadło, P., Hudziak, D., Gocoł, R. and Kosiński, S., 2021. Core temperature measurement—principles of correct measurement, problems, and complications. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 (20), p.10606. Learning, L. (n.d.). Biology for majors II . Lumen. Retrieved February 17, 2023, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/the-cardiac-cycle/ Liu, H., Wiedman, C.M., Lovelace-Chandler, V., Gong, S. and Salem, Y., 2023. Deep diaphragmatic breathing—anatomical and biomechanical consideration. Journal of Holistic Nursing , p.08980101221149866.

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Cardiopulmonary System 16 McDonagh, T.A., Metra, M., Adamo, M., Gardner, R.S., Baumbach, A., Böhm, M., Burri, H., Butler, J., Čelutkienė, J., Chioncel, O. and Cleland, J.G., 2021. 2021 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: Developed by the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) With the exceptional contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. European heart journal , 42 (36), pp.3599-3726. Molnar, C. and Gair, J., 2020. 1.8 The circulatory system. neurosciencecdn2 . Mondor, E., 2019. Assessment: respiratory system. Lewis's Medical-Surgical Nursing E- Book: Assessment and Management of Clinical Problems, Single Volume , p.455. Namvar, A., 2020. Red blood cell passage through narrow capillaries: sensitivity to stiffness and shape (Doctoral dissertation, University of Melbourne). OpenStax, L. L. &. (n.d.). Anatomy and physiology II . Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System | Anatomy and Physiology II. Retrieved February 8, 2023, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/organs-and-structures-of-the- respiratory-system/ Pauly, D., 2021. The gill-oxygen limitation theory (GOLT) and its critics. Science Advances , 7 (2), p.eabc6050. Peate, I., 2021. The heart: an amazing organ. British Journal of Healthcare Assistants , 15 (2), pp.72-77. Pleil, J.D., Wallace, M.A.G., Davis, M.D. and Matty, C.M., 2021. The physics of human breathing: flow, timing, volume, and pressure parameters for normal, on-demand, and ventilator respiration. Journal of breath research , 15 (4), p.042002.

Cardiopulmonary System 17 Popescu, M.R., Panaitescu, A.M., Pavel, B., Zagrean, L., Peltecu, G. and Zagrean, A.M., 2020. Getting an early start in understanding perinatal asphyxia’s impact on the cardiovascular system. Frontiers in pediatrics , 8 , p.68. Rubalcaba, J.G., Verberk, W.C., Hendriks, A.J., Saris, B. and Woods, H.A., 2020. Oxygen limitation may affect the temperature and size dependence of metabolism in aquatic ectotherms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 117 (50), pp.31963-31968. Santacroce, L., Charitos, I.A., Ballini, A., Inchingolo, F., Luperto, P., De Nitto, E. and Topi, S., 2020. The human respiratory system and its microbiome are at a glimpse. Biology , 9 (10), p.318. Tchoukalova, Y.D., Zacharias, S.R., Mitchell, N., Madsen, C., Myers, C.E., Gadalla, D., Skinner, J., Kopaczka, K., Gramignoli, R. and Lott, D.G., 2022. Human amniotic epithelial cell transplantation improves scar remodeling in a rabbit model of acute vocal fold injury: A pilot study. Stem Cell Research & Therapy , 13 (1), pp.1-14. Warburton, D., 2021. Conserved mechanisms in the formation of the airways and alveoli of the lung. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology , 9 , p.662059.

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