Master's Notes
docx
keyboard_arrow_up
School
Western Governors University *
*We aren’t endorsed by this school
Course
184
Subject
Arts Humanities
Date
Jan 9, 2024
Type
docx
Pages
13
Uploaded by GradStudentMorgan
The term
curriculum
refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific course or program. In dictionaries,
curriculum
is often defined as the courses offered by a school, but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which includes the
learning standards
or
learning objectives
they are expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books, materials, videos,
presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests,
assessments
, and other methods used to evaluate student learning. An individual teacher’s curriculum, for example, would be the specific learning standards, lessons, assignments, and materials used to organize and teach a particular course.
When the terms
curriculum
or
curricula
are used in educational contexts without qualification, specific examples, or additional explanation, it may be difficult to determine precisely what the terms are referring to—mainly because they could be applied to either all
or only some of the component parts of a school’s academic program or courses.
In many cases, teachers develop their own curricula, often refining and improving them over years, although it is also common for teachers to adapt lessons and syllabi created by other teachers, use curriculum templates and guides to structure their lessons and courses, or purchase prepackaged curricula from individuals and companies. In some cases, schools purchase comprehensive, multigrade curriculum packages—often in a particular subject area, such as mathematics—that teachers are required
to use or follow. Curriculum may also encompass a school’s academic requirements for graduation, such as the courses students have to take and pass, the number of credits students must complete, and other requirements, such as completing a
capstone project
or a certain number of community-service hours. Generally speaking, curriculum takes many different forms in schools—too many to comprehensively catalog here.
It is important to note that while curriculum encompasses a wide variety of potential educational and instructional practices, educators often have a very precise, technical meaning in mind when they use the term. Most teachers spend a lot of time thinking about, studying, discussing, and analyzing curriculum, and many educators have acquired a specialist’s expertise in curriculum development—i.e., they know how to structure, organize, and deliver lessons in ways that facilitate or accelerate student learning. To noneducators, some curriculum materials may seem simple or straightforward (such as a list of required reading, for example), but they may reflect a deep and sophisticated understanding of an academic discipline and of the most effective strategies for learning acquisition and
classroom management
.
For a related discussion, see
hidden curriculum
.
Reform
Since curriculum is one of the foundational elements of effective schooling and teaching, it is often the object of reforms, most of which are broadly intended to either mandate or encourage greater curricular standardization and consistency across states, schools, grade levels, subject areas, and courses. The
following are a few representative examples of the ways in which curriculum is targeted for improvement or used to leverage school improvement and increase teacher effectiveness:
Standards requirements:
When new
learning standards
are adopted at the state, district, or school levels, teachers typically modify what they teach and bring their curriculum into “
alignment
” with the learning expectations outlined in the new standards. While the technical alignment of curriculum with standards
does not necessarily mean that teachers are teaching in accordance with the standards—or, more to the point, that students are actually achieving those learning expectations—learning standards remain a mechanism by which policy makers and school leaders attempt to improve curriculum and teaching quality. The
Common Core State Standards Initiative
, for example, is a national effort to influence curriculum design and teaching quality in schools through the adoption of new learning standards by states.
Assessment requirements:
Another reform strategy that indirectly influences curriculum is assessment, since the methods used to measure student learning compel teachers to teach the content and skills that will eventually be evaluated. The most commonly discussed examples are
standardized testing
and
high-stakes testing
, which can give rise to a phenomenon informally called “teaching to the test.” Because federal and state policies require students to take standardized tests at certain grade levels, and because regulatory penalties or negative publicity may result from poor student performance (in the case of high-stakes tests), teachers are consequently under pressure to teach in ways that are likely to improve student performance on standardized tests—e.g., by teaching the content likely to be tested or by coaching students on specific test-taking techniques.
While standardized tests are one way in which assessment is used to leverage curriculum reform, schools may also use
rubrics
and many other strategies to improve teaching quality through the modification of assessment strategies, requirements, and expectations.
Curriculum alignment:
Schools may try to improve curriculum quality by bringing teaching activities and course expectations into “
alignment
” with learning standards and other school courses—a practice sometimes called “curriculum mapping.” The basic idea is to create a more consistent and coherent academic program by making sure that teachers teach the most important content and eliminate learning gaps that may exist between sequential courses and grade levels. For example, teachers may review their mathematics program to ensure that what students are actually being taught in every Algebra I course offered in the school not only reflects expected learning standards for that subject area and grade level, but that it also prepares students for Algebra II and geometry. When the curriculum is not aligned, students might be taught significantly different content in each Algebra I course, for example, and students taking different Algebra I courses may complete the courses unevenly prepared for Algebra II.
For a more detailed discussion, see
coherent curriculum
.
Curriculum philosophy:
The design and goals of any curriculum reflect the educational philosophy—whether intentionally or unintentionally—of the educators who developed it. Consequently, curriculum reform may occur through
the adoption of a different philosophy or model of teaching by a school or educator. Schools that follow the
Expeditionary Learning
model, for example, embrace a variety of approaches to teaching generally known as
project-based
learning
, which encompasses related strategies such as
community-based learning
and
authentic learning
. In Expeditionary Learning schools, students complete multifaceted projects called “expeditions” that require teachers to
develop and structure curriculum in ways that are quite different from the more traditional approaches commonly used in schools.
Curriculum packages:
In some cases, schools decide to purchase or adopt a curriculum package that has been developed by an outside organization.
One well-known and commonly used option for American public schools is
International Baccalaureate
, which offers curriculum programs for elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools.
Districts may purchase all three programs or an individual school may purchase only one, and the programs may be offered to all or only some of the students in a school.
When schools adopt a curriculum package, teachers often receive specialized training to ensure that the curriculum is effectively implemented and taught.
In many cases, curriculum packages are purchased or adopted because they are perceived to be of a higher quality or more prestigious than the existing curriculum options offered by a school or independently developed by teachers.
Curriculum resources:
The resources that schools provide to teachers can also
have a significant affect on curriculum.
For example, if a district or school purchases a certain set of textbooks and requires teachers to use them, those textbooks will inevitably influence what gets taught and how teachers teach. Technology purchases are another example of resources that have the potential to influence curriculum. If all students are given laptops and all classrooms are outfitted with interactive whiteboards, for example, teachers can make significant changes in what they teach and how they teach to take advantage of these new technologies (for a more detailed discussion of this example, see
one-to-one
). In most cases, however, new curriculum resources require schools to invest in
professional development
that helps teachers use
the new resources effectively, given that simply providing new resources without
investing in teacher education and training may fail to bring about desired improvements. In addition, the type of professional development provided to teachers can also have a major influence on curriculum development and design.
Curriculum standardization:
States, districts, and schools may also try to improve teaching quality and effectiveness by requiring, or simply encouraging, teachers to use either a standardized curriculum or common processes for developing curriculum. While the strategies used to promote more standardized curricula can vary widely from state to state or school to school, the general goal
is to increase teaching quality through greater curricular consistency.
School performance will likely improve, the reasoning goes, if teaching methods and learning expectations are based on sound principles and consistently applied throughout a state, district, or school. Curriculum standards may also be created or proposed by influential educational organizations—such as the
National Science Teachers Association
or the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
, for example—with the purpose of guiding learning expectations and teaching within particular academic disciplines.
Curriculum scripting:
Often called “scripted curriculum,” the scripting of curriculum is the most prescriptive form of standardized, prepackaged curriculum, since it typically requires teachers to not only follow a particular sequence of preprepared lessons, but to actually read aloud from a teaching script in class. While the professional
autonomy
and creativity of individual teachers may be significantly limited when such a curriculum system is used, the
general rationale is that teaching quality can be assured or improved, or at least maintained, across a school or
educational system
if teachers follow a precise instructional script. While not every teacher will be a naturally excellent teacher, the reasoning goes, all teachers can at least be given a high-quality curriculum script to follow. Scripted curricula tend to be most common in districts and schools that face significant challenges attracting and retaining experienced or qualified teachers, such as larger urban schools in high-poverty communities.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
CONCEPTIONS OF CURRICULUM
Gaius Julius Caesar and his cohorts of the first century BC had no idea that the oval track on which the Roman chariots raced would
bequeath a word used almost daily by educators 21 centuries later. The track—the
curriculum
—is a major focus of today’s educational leaders as they seek to create and implement the curriculum that best aligns with the needs of students and to increase successful student learning outcomes on the accountability metrics that apply in their unique contexts.
It is important to note the pragmatic implications of curriculum in serving the students’ needs and in making progress with student learning as measured officially, which may be different requirements. Curriculum theorists recognize that theory and practice are not
necessarily separate and should be connected (
Wright, 2000
). In fact, Wright discusses how curriculum theorists arse wrestling with the inclusion of curriculum in non-traditional learning environments, such as museums, community centers, and in various locales which may be virtual or real. Theorists are also considering the technological opportunities for learning that are reflected in changes in brick and mortar schools, virtual schools, and in curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation (
Wright, 2000
). These and other contemporary curriculum concepts are addressed throughout chapters in this text.
Various definitions of curriculum have been generated since as long ago as 1976, when
Dwayne Huebner (1976)
ascribed ambiguity and a lack of precision to the term
curriculum
(p. 156). In 1988,
Madeleine R. Grumet (1988)
labeled curriculum a “field of utter confusion” (p. 4). At the turn of the twenty-first century
Arthur W. Foshay (2000)
attributed a lack of specificity to the curriculum (p. xv). Indeed, curriculum seems at times analogous to the blind men’s elephant. It is the pachyderm’s trunk to some; its thick legs to others; its pterodactyl-like flopping ears to some people; its massive, rough sides to other persons; and its ropelike tail to still others. Herbert K. Kliebard (1998) observed that “what we call
the
American curriculum is actually an assemblage of competing doctrines and practices” (p. 21).
Until the development and various implementations of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) in the United States (US), curriculum was thought to be the written plan provided by the local education agency (LEA) or even by the state education agency (SEA). In 2010 the CCSS or a variation had been implemented in 45 states making curriculum across the US more alike than previously (
Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2010
). However, as an observer of teachers the authors note that in every school and in individual classrooms (virtual or traditional), the real curriculum is the interpretation of the curriculum through instruction. What an observer immediately perceives is that the interactions between the teachers and students (instructional learning experiences) actually provides evidence of the real curriculum. Because of the practical implementations or interpretations of the official curriculum by the teachers through their instruction with students, curriculum and instruction cannot be completely separated. Officially, curriculum is the
what
and instruction is the
how
.
Professional Licensure and Curriculum
State professional licensure or certification governance documents set professional standards for educators. These requirements, whether in statute, rule, or policy, compound the problem of defining curriculum because few professionals can become licensed or certified in
curriculum.
Whereas most education professionals in preparatory programs take courses of one type or another called
curriculum,
there is generally not a certifiable field labeled
curriculum.
Professionals are typically licensed or certified in areas such as educational leadership, counseling, school psychology, elementary education, or secondary education content areas. But in
curriculum
per se? Not as a rule, although courses in the field of curriculum are often required for most education areas, including educational leadership.
Nevertheless, numbers of curriculum specialists, coordinators, developers, digital designers, supervisors, consultants, and even professors of curriculum can be identified. These curriculum specialists, many of whom may hold licensure or certification in one or more fields, cannot customarily hang on the wall a certificate that shows that they are certified in a field called
curriculum.
Though a certifiable field of specialization called curriculum may be lacking, the word itself is treated as if it had tangible substance, for it can undergo a substantial variety of processes. Curriculum—or its plural, curricula or curriculums (depending on the user’s penchant or abhorrence for the Latin)—is built, planned, designed, and constructed. It is improved, revised, and evaluated based on the implementation’s learning outcomes or change in results on accountability metrics. Like muscles that are developed to become stronger and provide more power, the curriculum is developed. It is also organized, structured, and restructured, and, like a misdirected child, reformed. With considerable ingenuity, the curriculum planner can mold, shape, and tailor the official curriculum. However, with the implementation of CCSS and its variations across the states, the public school curriculum may be perceived to have become less creative and more straightforward with defined and expected student learning outcomes across many states. Charter school, for profit school, and private or independent school curriculums may have more flexibility as they have different accountability measures than their public school counterparts.
Interpretations of Curriculum
The amorphous nature of the word
curriculum
has given rise over the years to many interpretations. Depending on their philosophical beliefs, persons have conveyed these interpretations.
Curriculum is that which is taught in school.
Curriculum is a set of subjects or content areas.
Curriculum is a program or course of study.
Curriculum is a set of materials and resources.
Curriculum is a sequence of courses.
Curriculum is a set of performance standards.
Curriculum is everything that goes on both academic, social, and otherwise, inside and outside of classes.
Curriculum is that which is officially taught both inside of school and outside of school.
Curriculum is everything that is planned by school personnel.
Curriculum is a series of experiences undergone by learners in school.
In the foregoing definitions, you can see that curriculum can be conceived in a narrow way as the official curriculum of the standards that are to be taught in specific grade levels and content areas or the unofficial or hidden curriculum of the other experiences that students have in school, both during instruction and beyond instruction. The implications for instructional leaders to be drawn from the differing conceptions of
curriculum can vary considerably. The instructional leader who accepts the definition of curriculum as standards to be learned, faces a much simpler task than the school leaders who take responsibility for experiences of the learner both inside the classrooms and beyond, maybe even to what is learned outside of school.
Historical Conceptions of Curriculum
A variety of nuances are perceived when professional educators define curriculum. Trace how a number of writers between the early twentieth and early twenty-first centuries conceptualized curriculum.
Franklin Bobbitt (1918)
, one of the earliest writers on curriculum, perceived curriculum as:
that series of things which children and youth must do and experience by way of developing abilities to do the things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects what adults should be. (
Bobbitt, 1918
, p.
42)
Hollis L. Caswell and Doak S. Campbell (1935)
viewed curriculum not as a group of courses but as “all the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers” (p. 66).
Ralph W. Tyler’s (1949)
writings pointed the way to “educational objectives” that “represent the kinds of changes in behavior that an educational institution seeks to bring about in its students” (p. 6).
Hilda Taba (1962)
, in a discussion of criteria for providing sets of learning opportunities for curriculum development, said, “A curriculum is a plan for learning” (p. 11).
She defined curriculum by listing its elements.
Taba (1962
, p. 10) explained that every curriculum globally contains common elements, such as goals and objectives, and distinct content selections and organizational approaches that inform styles of learning and teaching, concluding with
an assessment methodology to determine whether the objectives were met.
A different approach to defining curriculum was taken by Robert M. Gagné (
1967
, p. 21), who wove together subject matter (content), the statement of ends (terminal objectives), sequencing of content, and preassessment of entry skills required of students when they begin the study of the content.
Mauritz Johnson Jr (1967)
, agreed basically with
Gagné (1967)
when he defined curriculum as a “structured series of intended learning outcomes,” (p. 130). Johnson perceived curriculum as “the output of a ‘curriculum development system’ and as an input into an ‘instructional system’” (p. 133).
Albert I. Oliver (1977)
equated curriculum with the educational program and divided it into four basic elements: “(1) the program of studies, (2) the program of experiences, (3) the program
Hidden curriculum is a concept that describes the often unarticulated and unacknowledged things students are taught in school and that may affect their learning experience. These are often unspoken and implied lessons unrelated to the academic courses they're taking — things learned from simply being
in school.
The Physical School Environment A substandard school environment can be a component of hidden curriculum because it can impact learning. Children and young adults don't focus and learn well in cramped, dimly lit and poorly ventilated classrooms, thus students in some inner-city schools and those located in economically challenged areas may be at a disadvantage. They may learn less and take this with them into adulthood, resulting in the lack of college educations and poorly paying employment.
Teacher-Student Interaction Teacher-student interaction can contribute to a hidden curriculum as well. When a teacher does not like a particular student, he may do everything he can to avoid displaying that feeling, but the child can often pick up on it anyway. The child learns that she is unlikable and invaluable. This problem can also arise from a lack of understanding about students' home lives, details of which are not always available to teachers.
Peer Pressure The influence of peers is a significant component of hidden curriculum. Students don't attend school in a vacuum. They're not always seated at desks, focused on their teachers. Younger students have recess together. Older students share lunch and gather outside the school building before and after classes. They're influenced by the pull
and tug of social acceptance. Bad behavior
can be rewarded in this environment as a positive thing. If a child comes from a home where her parents cannot always afford lunch money, she may be ridiculed, teased and made to feel inferior.
Results of Hidden Curriculum Female students, students from lower-class families and those belonging to subordinate racial categories are often treated in ways that create or reinforce inferior self-images. They may also be often granted less trust, independence or autonomy, and they may be more willing to submit to authority for the rest of their lives as a result.
On the other hand, students who belong to dominant social groups tend to be treated in ways that enhance their self-esteem, independence, and autonomy. They're therefore more likely to be successful.
When people think about curriculum, they often think of the skills and knowledge students must master. These take the form of learning goals, content, learning activities, and assessments. These components are interrelated, affecting one another based on the content of focus. Educators must understand the components of the curriculum and the relationships between them to pinpoint areas in need of revision, expansion, or replacement. The elements of the curriculum are comparable to pieces of a
puzzle. Each piece influences others and should work together to create a rich learning experience for students. Another factor influencing curriculum composition is how broadly or narrowly the instructor defines the curriculum based on the situation, as you learned in the previous section. The learning context informs and frames the curriculum components, highlighting the importance of understanding curriculum components. This section will explore various aspects of the curriculum, how the parts are related to one another through multiple models, and how the elements of curriculum work together to create a curriculum unit. Critical Concepts in Curriculum
In order to fully understand curriculum, teachers need to understand curriculum components, such as standards, objectives, units, lessons, materials, and assessments. This material will lay the foundation for later exploration and evaluation of the curriculum, so it is vital to establish this firm foundation. In "
Curriculum Definition
" from the Rhode Island Department of Education, there is an informative overview of curriculum components for you to read. Read "
Standards, Instructional Objective, and Curriculum Design: A Complex Relationship
" from Phi Delta Kappan
for additional insights to three central curriculum components.
As you read these resources, consider the following questions:
Why do teachers and other stakeholders need to have a common definition of curriculum-related terms?
What triggers curriculum reform?
What is the relationship between standards, goals, and curriculum design?
What are the potential challenges if curriculum does not address the needs of a diverse classroom? This lesson has explored the relationship between standards, objectives, and curriculum design. You
will now discover how additional elements such as essential questions, objectives, assessment, and the needs of the audience fit into the puzzle. This graphic illustrates the interconnectedness between these items.
Learner needs are another critical piece of the curriculum puzzle, which can help tie other elements together. Student needs, interests, prior knowledge, and skills can be incorporated into the curriculum to create engaging experiences for the audience, leading to deeper understanding.
Standards and goals are the foundation of content and assessment for curriculum design.
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Teachers start with standards and goals when developing content, assessments, and other components during curriculum design.
Curriculum and instruction are dependent on one another. Without a robust curriculum, the best instructional activities will fall short of meeting student needs. Without innovative instructional activities, the best curriculum will seem dull. Curriculum and instruction should complement one another to create a well-rounded student experience. Educators must have a thorough understanding of both curriculum and instruction to capitalize on the relationship between them.
This section will explore the relationship between curriculum and instruction that may be interlocking, dualistic, concentric, or
cyclical.
The world is changing and evolving rapidly. Therefore, the need for educational programs and curriculum to change to meet learners' needs is essential. A needs analysis is one of the first steps in
determining how a curriculum should change to address changing expectations. As you read "
Changing Expectations
" from
Developing the Curriculum
, think about your instructional context and how this information applies to your work with teachers and students.
Pages 49–53
from
The Essentials of Instructional Design: Connecting Fundamental Principles with Process and Practic
e discusses a needs analysis and includes practical applications. While this reading is geared toward instructional designers, the information about conducting a needs analysis
is applicable to teachers as well since teachers are designing the instruction in their classrooms. As you read the pages, think about the importance of identifying the purpose of the needs analysis before beginning the process.
As you are reading these texts, consider the following questions:
Why should you understand the purpose of a needs analysis?
How could a needs analysis help you address the challenges students face in our society?
Why is it important for teachers to use data to develop the curriculum?
Identifying Gaps
How often have you heard educators say they need to determine the root cause of the problem? What does this mean? Read
pages 24–26
from
Mastering the Instructional Design Process: A Systematic Approach
to learn about a needs analysis, or a gap analysis, which is the process to determine the root cause of a situation or problem. As you read, pay attention to the different levels of needs assessments on page 25 and the types of needs assessments described on page 26.
As you read these pages, ask yourself how a needs analysis helps you identify gaps in your curriculum.
Changing Expectations
A nation’s effort to compete in a global economy is not new and continues to shape the debate on effectiveness of public education and how the curriculum contributes to perceived
effectiveness. As many countries have evolved from being agrarian to industrial to informatic, urban centers have developed and different curriculum and school organizational
structures have emerged. The USA is no different and has transitioned from manufacturing
to an information and thinking society and therefore curriculum, organizational structures, and delivery modes have continued to adapt at a rapid pace.
The accelerated pace in many aspects of life in the USA is transforming how students will become ready for success in their careers or in college. While the rapid rate of change impacts daily lives, changes also impact the way that curriculum specialists and developers view the sources that are to be considered when evaluating curriculum needs. Some of the sources include student achievement data, demographic data, graduates’ successes, teacher effectiveness, and community employment data. There are other sources of evidence that are helpful to consider that will emerge from teachers, instructional coaches, and administrators in schools and across school districts.
The curriculum developer’s facility in determining student curricular needs, based on a variety of data and evidence sources, will influence the effectiveness of the curriculum that is generated and perhaps even the fidelity of its implementation. These and other changes support the importance of understanding how to develop forward thinking curriculum that addresses the challenges students will face in an ever-changing global environment.
Consider these queries. How will the focus areas be determined? How do developers shape
curriculum, based on the needs and predicted needs of society, so that graduates are competitive in their selected and potentially changing careers? Which data and evidence sources should curriculum developers consider to develop an effective curriculum? How will
leaders know if the curriculum has met the learning needs or not, and for which students under which conditions? Curriculum developers’ understanding of the level of transparency that is expected in (a) the selection of sources upon which to determine curricular needs, (b)
the development processes, and (c) how the curriculum’s effectiveness will be measured may influence the success of implementation outcomes.
The curriculum developer has a plethora of decisions to make when designing content that will positively impact learning. By understanding the needs of society and by using data and
evidence to make informed curriculum and instructional decisions, educators can systematically approach these opportunities and challenges.
Tony Wagner (2010)
, Harvard professor and founder of the Change Leadership Group, stated that due to the changing nature of the workplace, students need to master communication and thinking skills to become productive citizens in the twenty-first century, particularly those in urban environments. Critical thinking, problem solving, entrepreneurialism, and effective communication are just a few of the skills that students need to be proficient and to be successful.
Learning environments that promote twenty-first century skills will be flexible, infuse inquiry, generate student thinking, and will incorporate digital tools.
Table 7.1
demonstrates how Wagner (
21stcenturyschools.com
) envisions classrooms.
Twentieth Century Classrooms
Twenty-First Century Classrooms
Time based
Outcome based
Twentieth Century Classrooms
Twenty-First Century Classrooms
Low level thinking
Higher, more complex thinking
Text book driven
Standards driven
Passive learning
Active learning
Learners and teachers work in isolation
Collaborative work
Teacher centered
Learner centered
Fragmented curriculum
Integrated and interdisciplinary curriculum
Teacher evaluates
Self and peer feedback
Curriculum irrelevant
Curriculum connected to students’ interests, experiences, talents
Print is primary mode for learning and assessment.
Performances, projects, and online learning for learning
and assessment
Diversity in students is ignored.
Student diversity reflected
Literacy is reading and writing in isolation.
Literacy: reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and thinking in all subjects
Factory model based upon needs for the Industrial Age
Flexible model for rapidly evolving global and technological economy
Identifying Where to Start
You need to conduct a needs analysis, but where do you start? How do you begin the process? Read
pages 25–29
from
Needs Assessment
. These pages reference social workers, but they clarify the process of planning for a needs assessment by posing questions that can also help educators build a blueprint for a compelling needs analysis. The discussion at the bottom of page 25 provides a practical approach to starting the process by explaining the multiples decision points that would be appropriate starting places.
As a curriculum leader, you should be skilled in identifying appropriate steps in the process and ensuring that the individuals conducting the analysis obtain the necessary data and information. Read
pages 5–7,
"Planning for a Comprehensive Needs Assessment," from
A Guide for Comprehensive Needs Assessment
. It provides insights on planning for a needs analysis and the steps involved in the process.
As you read this information, consider the following questions:
Why is determining the purpose of the needs analysis a vital first step?
How would the purpose of a needs analysis at the classroom level differ from the purpose of a needs analysis at the school or district level?
How will these steps apply to a classroom teacher?
How will these steps apply to a school or school district?
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
Needs Analysis Process
It is important to understand that the persons involved in the process of a needs analysis will differ based on the purpose. A teacher can conduct a needs analysis for a classroom, but if the use or purpose involves the entire grade level or school, a committee of teachers may be needed. Read
page 156
in "Steps in the Needs Assessment Process" from
Developing the Curriculum
for an overview of steps in a needs analysis and the people who might be involved.
Successful curriculum leaders, teachers, and administrators use a variety of approaches, or steps, to perform a needs analysis.
Pages 58–
62
from
The Essentials of Instructional Design: Connecting Fundamental Principles with Process and Practice
focus on an instructional designer's work, but the needs analysis methods and approaches also apply to K–12 educational settings.
As you read these selections, consider the following questions:
What do you notice about the steps in each process?
How are the steps in the different methods alike? How are they different?
Which method or approach would apply to your educational context?
How can you ensure the right people are involved at each step?
A needs analysis allows educators to obtain and interpret data to make informed decisions for students. Data is one of the most powerful tools available to leverage for the classroom, grade-level, school, and district decisions. Consequently, conducting a needs analysis individually or as part of a group such as a data team, grade-level team, department, or district allows educators to improve practice. Data may be narrow or broad in scope, depending on the needs of the situation.
Numerous data sources are already available to educators to inform the decision-making process. There are many methods, strategies, and tools to identify what students already know and to pinpoint gaps in learning. In this section, you will have the opportunity to locate and mine this extant data for classroom improvement opportunities.
This section will explore various tools for gathering and analyzing data that are appropriate for multiple data types and situations. If a suitable tool is not available for the targeted data, you will explore ways to create one.
As you progress through the section, consider the following questions:
Which type of information is needed to complete the needs analysis?
Which tools and instruments are available to gather this type of data?
How can you create a specific tool to gather data in your instructional setting?
Data Collection from Student Information
Read "
Data Meeting 1: Reviewing Existing Data and Asking Questions
" from
How Teachers Can Turn Data into Action.
This resource provides three
simple steps for a team digging into data for the first time plus information about protocols. Then the
Student Work Analysis Protocol
from the Rhode Island Department of Education provides you with more information about procedures and questions to consider when analyzing student work.
As you read each resource, consider the following questions:
What are the sources of data readily available in your community, school, district, and state?
How can you leverage these data sources to explore trends in student learning?
Which protocols should you ensure are followed as you collect data?
Data Gathering Tools
Educators can enhance and add to existing data by collecting additional information using a variety of methods. Read
pages 64–73
from
Rapid Instructional Design: Learning ID Fast and Right
to learn more about data collection methods such as focus groups, interviews, surveys, observations, document collection, and other strategies.
In
Methods for Conducting an Educational Needs Assessment: Guidelines for Cooperative Extension System Professionals
, Paul F. McCawley discusses four data collection techniques applied to the educational setting: surveys, interviews, focus groups, and working groups.
Look at the image on
page
8
from
A Guide for Comprehensive Needs Assessment
to explore different types of data sources for a needs assessment. Pay special attention to the examples accompanying each category, such as student information, school information, community characteristics, testing data, stakeholder information, and other types of data.
As you read each resource, consider the following questions:
Which types of data do you already analyze?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of data collection technique?
How could you incorporate additional types of data to inform your classroom practice?
After obtaining data from multiple sources, it is crucial to record the data so that it can be organized, searched, and interpreted effectively. This section will explore ways to analyze qualitative data to search for trends and issues. It will focus on a five-step process for analyzing qualitative data: get to know your data, focus the analysis, categorize the information, identify patterns and connections within the categories, and interpret it.
The educational benefits of valid data cannot be overemphasized. Data identifies gaps between what students currently know
and what they need to know for success. Identification of these learning gaps is one of the most significant benefits of conducting the needs analysis. Therefore, the data must be formatted and accessible for review.
As you progress through this section, consider the following questions:
How are qualitative findings recorded in logical, accessible ways to reveal trends?
What challenges arise when recording data?
What challenges arise in the data interpretation process?
The section below begins with a video overview of the data analysis process. Watch the "Data Analysis" (1:17) video from WGU
below and note the techniques used to record and interpret different data types.
As you watch the video, consider the following questions:
How are qualitative and quantitative data addressed differently?
Which types of questions are beneficial during data analysis?
Analyzing the Needs Assessment Data
It is important to consider the types of data when collecting, sorting, and organizing information. This section will take a closer look at quantitative and qualitative data characteristics. Quantitative data focuses on numerical information, while qualitative explores narrative data for emergent trends and patterns.
Each type of data yields important information for educators to base decisions on. Using both types of data together is an especially powerful approach. Read
pages 71–75
from
Needs Assessment
. Qualitative data are composed of information rather than numbers, so they must be coded and interpreted to identify trends and issues. These data include narrative data from interviews, observations, focus groups, and other sources. Read the article
"
Analyzing Qualitative Data
" from the University of Wyoming—Extension to learn techniques and strategies for coding qualitative data.
As you read these resources, consider the following questions:
What is the difference between how qualitative and quantitative data are sorted and organized?
What examples of qualitative and quantitative data are used in your classroom?
Determining What to Do with the Data
Learning Objectives
Determine priority areas of need for education based on data analysis.
Effective management of the data analysis results maximizes productivity. Considerations for making data-
driven decisions include using the results to identify curriculum gaps and new topics to fill them. It is easier to pinpoint these opportunities when effective data organization strategies are in use.
It is also essential to use data to determine what students already know to build from this foundation. Student experiences vary, so it is important to differentiate for individual needs. All students will not come to new learning with the same background knowledge. Successful differentiation to meet these individuals where they are requires valid data. Customization of the curriculum based on data is crucial to maximize student growth. Assessment of essential learning topics, prior knowledge, and outcomes are part of the data-driven decision-
making process. This section will explore that process to begin identifying knowledge gaps to improve learning opportunities.
As you explore the resources in this section, consider the following questions:
How do you currently assess students' prior knowledge?
How do you identify gaps in student learning at this time?
How can you use the available data to pinpoint ways to assist students?
Prioritizing Needs
This section will address prioritizing classroom needs in more detail. In a perfect world, many educators would change the characteristics of the classroom environment, materials, curriculum, and instruction. But, with limited resources, choices must be made and priorities established to implement classroom change. Read the excerpt on prioritizing needs from
Needs Assessment
on
pages 37–41
. This reading addresses four types of needs: strategic needs, operational needs, individual performance needs, and learning needs.
As you read, think about the following questions:
Which types of learning needs are the highest priority for your classroom?
Which strategic and operational requirements are a high priority for your classroom?
Decision-Making Based in Data
Learn about two categories of decision-making: those for individual interventions and those for group-level needs. Read "
Decision Making for Individual Interventions
" and "
Decision Making for Group-Level Instructional Revisions
" from
The Data-Driven Classroom: How Do I Use Student Data to Improve My Instruction?
The readings emphasize the importance of prioritizing needs. It is essential to focus on the most pressing needs first. The results of a needs analysis will help you focus on time and resources wisely.
As you read the selections, consider the following questions:
Individual decisions require which types of data?
Group-level interventions necessitate which kinds of data?
Considering the information you have gathered so far in this module, what changes or interventions
would you prioritize in your classroom, and why?
Action Planning for Future Instructional Cycles
Your preview ends here
Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version
- Access to all documents
- Unlimited textbook solutions
- 24/7 expert homework help
You have explored the data analysis process, including types of data, tools for data collection, coding and analysis procedures, and prioritizing. These activities result in a cycle of research and revision from year to year in the classroom that includes a cycle of deciding priorities. As time progresses and the amount of information increases, it can become challenging to manage, organize, and focus on priorities. Read "
Action Planning for Future Instructional Cycles
" from
The Data-Driven Classroom: How Do I Use Student Data to Improve My Instruction?
to learn some action-planning procedures to help maintain the data analysis process over the years.
As you read, consider the following questions:
Which aspects of action planning do you already incorporate into your practice?
How can you fully incorporate action planning into your work to manage data collection, analysis, and change implementation?
Using Data to Support Decision-Making
The cyclical nature of the needs analysis, data interpretation, and implementation process is illustrated in the report
"Using Student Achievement Data to Support Instructional Decision Making"
from the Institute of Educational Sciences. Read "Recommendation 1: Make Data Part of an Ongoing Cycle of Instructional Improvement" beginning on page 10. Data collection, interpretation, and instructional modification create a continuous loop to improve classroom practice.
As you read the report, consider the following questions:
How does each step of the process (data collection, interpretation, and instructional modification) play out in the classroom?
Which roadblocks discussed in the report could affect your instructional setting? Are additional barriers present that you can anticipate when implementing action planning?
A Comprehensive Needs Assessment
You have learned about the various aspects of conducting a needs analysis. Review "
A Guide for Comprehensive Needs Assessment"
by the Southwest Comprehensive Center at WestEd to see an example of the process implemented by one state. Pay special attention to the techniques for gathering existing data, collecting new data, analyzing the data, and making decisions based on that data. The next reading will explore the decision-making and planning phases in more detail, so at this time, focus on the analysis process.
As you review the document, consider the following questions:
Which types of existing data inform the analysis?
How are new data gathered to build upon the extant data?
Which kinds of data analysis activities take place?
How are planning decisions made based on the data?