Writing Paragraphs

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Toronto Metropolitan University *

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132

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Arts Humanities

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Oct 30, 2023

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Sam Shelstad Writing Skills Initiative Teaching Assistant Writing Paragraphs Workshop SWP 132 Critical Social Work Foundations Toronto Metropolitan University

Plan I) The basics of paragraph structure II) Patterns for paragraph structure III) Coherence and transitions IV) How to write introductions V) How to write conclusions

Introduction So now you’ve done the necessary research, analyzed it critically, drafted an outline, and composed a focused thesis argument. It’s time to write. How do you organize the information on your outline into coherent paragraphs ? Below are a number of concrete strategies for transforming your ideas into paragraphs with focused, purposeful structures . Above all, the structures that we are covering today provide a number of writing options from which you can choose according to the purpose that you want each paragraph to perform.

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I) The Basics of Paragraph Structure Here are the basic elements that you may have already learned in previous education settings. These features help structure development paragraphs in their most basic form. 1. Focus on a Main Point i) State the Main Point with a Topic Sentence The golden rule of constructing paragraphs is to limit one idea per paragraph . Focus each paragraph around one main idea; in turn, all remaining sentences in the paragraph should relate to that idea . State the main point by using a topic sentence – a one-sentence summary that tells readers what to expect as they read on. The topic sentence usually begins a paragraph.

ii) Crafting The Topic Sentence The Topic Sentence performs the following functions: 1) Introduces the topic of the paragraph 2) Makes a point about the topic 3) Makes a statement that is neither too broad nor too narrow Weak and Strong Topic Sentences Weak Strong I am going to explain why I love blogs. The beauty of blogs is that they promote genuine democracy. Many people around the world enjoy music. Nothing bridges gaps between cultures like music.

iii) Stick to the Point The way to focus each paragraph is to relate every sentence to the main idea and topic sentence . Sentences that do not support the topic sentence compromise the unity of a paragraph. Information that does not support the main idea needs to be either removed or placed elsewhere. Note: Sometimes the issue is not one of deleting or moving the information that does not support the paragraph; instead, writers may wander due to a lack of evidence to support the main idea. When this situation arises, the writer faces a few choices: find more evidence, adjust the topic sentence to match the evidence available, or use the new material for another paragraph.

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2. Develop the Main Point Generally, a paragraph that contains only a few sentences does not constitute an adequate paragraph. The main point involves the statement of a main idea that you develop in a paragraph by supporting it with specific evidence and strong analysis . An essay involves moving back and forth between statements of main ideas, specific evidence, and strong analytical points. Specific evidence includes the following: Facts, Examples, Statistics Concrete Details Terms and Concepts Reasons Quotations and Paraphrases Research Evidence Opposing Views Counter Opposing Views

3. The Concluding Sentence Two strategies for closing each paragraph include the following: 1) A “Clincher”: an unmistakable, definitive, and appropriate conclusion 2) A transition: a link to the new idea that will be developed in the next paragraph

II) Patterns for Paragraph Structure Beyond mastering the basics of including a topic sentence and continually focusing each paragraph on one main idea, writers quickly encounter writing schematic paragraphs with little more structure. Fortunately, a number of structures or patterns of organization are available for giving your writing more variety , focus , and purpose to match the greater sophistication and elasticity of academic writing. Not only will thinking and choosing from among these structures improve your writing, doing so will provide you with greater clarity in the planning and writing stages of your essay . Perhaps most importantly, these patterns will help bring the variety necessary to maintaining your reader’s interest . These structures will also help you chart more clearly and decisively the various landmarks on your road map for writing your essay and reaching your destination. While you may use one of the following patterns in a single paragraph, you may also consider blending a combination of the patterns together in some paragraphs.

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1. Examples and Illustrations Whenever examples are necessary as evidence , they can provide a significant way of developing material and adding strength to your argument. Illustrations act as extended examples and are often presented in story form . An illustration may begin with a general statement that is developed with examples that support or elaborate on the statement. EXAMPLE Normally, my parents abided scrupulously by “The Budget,” but several times a year Dad would dip into his battered black strongbox and splurge on some irrational, totally satisfying luxury. Once he bought over a hundred comic books at a flea market, doled out to us thereafter at the tantalizing rate of two a week. He always got a whole flat of pansies, Mom’s favourite flower, for us to give her on Mother’s Day. One day a boy stopped at our house selling fifty -cent raffle tickets on a sailboat and Dad bought every ticket the boy had left – three books’ worth. – Connie Hailey, student

2. Narration A paragraph of narration tells a story or part of a story . It is most logical when providing personal or historical accounts . Narrations and anecdotes are great for beginning an introduction. EXAMPLE One evening when I was wading in the shallows of the lake to pass a rocky outcrop, I suddenly stopped dead as I saw the sinuous black body of a snake in the water. It was all of six feet long, and from the slight hood and the dark stripes at the back of t he neck I knew it to be a Storm’s water cobra – a deadly reptile for the bite of which there was, at that time, no serum. As I stared at it an incoming wave gently deposited part of its body on one of my feet. I remained motionless, not even breathing, until the wave rolled back into the lake, drawing the snake with it. Then I leaped out of the water as fast as I could, my heart hammering. – Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Men

3. Description A description paragraph sketches a portrait of a person, place, or thing by using concrete and specific details that appeal to one or more senses – sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch . EXAMPLE They came like dive bombers out of the west. They came by the millions with the rustle of their wings roaring overhead. They came in waves, like the rolls of the sea, descending with a terrifying speed, breaking now and again like a mighty surf. They came with the force of a williwaw and they formed a huge, ominous, dark brown cloud that eclipsed the sun. They dipped and touched earth, hitting objects and people like hailstones. But they were not hail. These were live demons. They popped, snapped, crackled, and roared. They were dark brown, an inch or longer in length, plump in the middle and tapered at the ends. They had transparent wings, slender legs, and two black eyes that flashed with a fierce intelligence. – Eugene Boe, “Pioneers to Eternity”

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4. Process A process paragraph is structured in chronological order . This pattern can be used to describe how something is made or done or to explain to readers, step by step, how to do something . EXAMPLE Begin by taking a suitable stance, with one foot slightly in front of the other and the rod pointing down the line. Then begin a smooth, steady draw, raising your rod hand to just above shoulder height and lifting the rod to the 10:30 or 11:00 position. This steady draw allows a loop of line to form between the rod top and the water. While the line is still moving, raise the rod slightly, then punch it rapidly forward and down. The rod is now flexed and under maximum compression, and the line follows its path, bellying out slightly behind you and coming off the water close to your feet. As you power the rod down through the 3:00 position, the belly of line will roll forward. Follow through smoothly so that the line unfolds and straightens above the water. – The Dorling Kindersley Encyclopedia of Fishing

5. Comparison and Contrast The comparison model may be used either to focus on similarities, differences, or both . When examining both similarities and differences, a comparison paragraph may present two subjects one a time or treat two subjects point-by-point by examining one aspect at a time. EXAMPLE Grant and Lee were in complete contrast, representing two diametrically opposed elements in American life. Grant was the modern man emerging; beyond him, ready to come on the stage, was the great age of steel and machinery, of crowded cities and a restless, burgeoning vitality. Lee might have ridden down from the old age of chivalry, lance in hand, silken banner fluttering over his head. Each man was the perfect champion of his cause, drawing both his strengths and his weaknesses from the people he led. – Bruce Cat ton, “Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts”

6. Analogy Analogies draw comparisons between items that appear to have little in common ; in other words, an analogy is an extended comparison . For instance, one could compare a reader analyzing an essay to a mechanic taking apart an engine. An analogy uses something known in order to explain something unknown ; an analogy uses the familiar in order to shed light on the unfamiliar. In extended analogies, a number of points are raised to develop the argument more fully. EXAMPLE Ants are so much like human beings as to be an embarrassment. They farm fungi, raise aphids as livestock, launch armies into wars, use chemical sprays to alarm and confuse enemies, capture slaves. The families of weaver ants engage in child labour, holding their larvae like shuttles to spin out the thread that sews the leaves together for their fungus gardens. They exchange information ceaselessly. They do everything but watch television. – Lewis Thomas, “On Societies as Organisms”

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7. Cause and Effect A paragraph may move from cause to effects or from an effect to its causes . The topic sentence, for instance, may state an effect for which the rest of the paragraph lists and examines a number of causes. EXAMPLE The fantastic water clarity of the Mount Gambier sinkholes results from several factors. The holes are fed from aquifers holding rainwater that fell decades – even centuries – ago, and that has been filtered through miles of limestone. The high level of calcium that limestone adds causes the silty detritus from the dead plants and animals to cling together and settle quickly to the bottom. Abundant bottom vegetation in the shallow sinkholes also helps bind the silt. And the rapid turnover of water prohibits stagnation. – Hillary Hauser, “Exploring a Sunken Realm in Australia”

8. Classification and Division Classification is the grouping of items into categories according to some consistent principle or systematic order . Division takes one item and divides it into parts according to a consistent principle or systematic order. This form is common to science. EXAMPLE Scientists sort electric fish into three categories. The first comprises the strongly electric species like the marine electric rays or the freshwater African electric catfish and South American electric eel. Known since the dawn of history, these deliver a punch strong enough to stun a human. In recent years, biologists have focused on a second category: weakly electric fish in the South American and African rivers that use tiny voltages for communication and navigation. The third group contains sharks, nonelectric rays and catfish, which do not emit a field but possess sensors that enable them to detect the minute amounts of electricity that leak out of other organisms. – Anne and Jack Rudloe, “Electric Warfare: The Fish That Kill with Thunderbolts”

9. Definition A definition puts a word or concept into a general class and then provides enough details to distinguish it from other members in the same class . A paragraph with a definition often works well in the earlier part of an essay when establishing the meaning of crucial terms. EXAMPLE Aerobic exercise is exercise involving steady movement performed at a rate sufficient to reach a target heart rate substantially above the normal pulse and to sustain it at that rate for a prescribed period of time, at least twenty but preferably thirty minutes. For beneficial aerobic effect, an individual needs to maintain a target heart rate of approximately twice his or her normal heart rate. Steady rowing, swimming, bicycling, running, or brisk walking are aerobic activities. Golf, tennis, weightlifting, and other activities in which one rests frequently are not. Aerobic exercise benefits the cardiovascular system and helps the body to burn calories.

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10. Downshifting Downshifting involves developing a paragraph by starting with a broad, general statement and then moving down through a series of more and more specific statements . Note that not every sentence has to indicate a step to being more specific, but generally the function is to move in a direction of greater specificity. EXAMPLE The 1980s may be remembered as the era when millions of people became obsessed with fitness. Ambitious young people took up aerobics and weightlifting as a flat belly and sloping shoulders became assets on the career ladder. Others took up running, and comparing marathon times became approved cocktail party talk. Even the cocktail parties themselves were affected. The boss began drinking Perrier water instead of white wine, and the really strong stuff like martinis brought raised eyebrows from everyone. Smoking at any party made the offending culprit feel like a pariah, someone polluting the air.

III) Coherence and Transitions In addition to mastering the basics and organizing the overall structure of paragraphs, you also need to consider how to connect individual sentences within a paragraph . With such strategies, you will contribute to your writing what is referred to as “coherence” or “flow” . Coherence depends upon indicating the appropriate links and transitions between sentences and paragraphs . Here are some key strategies for achieving coherence: 1. Repeating Key Words Repetition of key words and phrases is crucial for keeping the reader on track. These terms also act as buzzwords that represent entire ideas and even sections of an essay or argument. For more general use of key words, you may encounter the problem of unwanted repetition. In order to alleviate this problem, simply consider using synonyms, related phrases, or other variations for articulating the same idea. EXAMPLE plots, mutinous plots, insurrection, uprisings, plunder

2. Using Parallel Structures Parallel sentence structures are not only necessary within individual sentences to underscore similarity of ideas but are also used to bind together a series of sentences expressing similar information. This strategy involves applying it at different scales. EXAMPLE The salt spills. A knife falls to the floor. Your dog barks all night. 3. Patterns for Arranging Paragraphs Here are other ways of arranging paragraphs that you may want to consider: Time organize a chronological sequence or history Location indicate the position of objects or describe a place General to Specific this is the most common way of organizing ideas Specific to General this presents a less common arrangement Problem to Solution present a problem and move to a solution

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4. Providing Transitions Perhaps the most important and easy-to-use elements for bringing coherence to writing, transitions establish the crucial logical links connecting sentences within paragraphs as well as among paragraphs . Think of transitions as bridges between what has been read and what is about to be read. Make sure to choose the appropriate transition for the logical link that you intend to make . Here is a list of many transitions organized according to their corresponding logical signals: COMMON TRANSITIONS TO SHOW ADDITION and, also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next, too, first, second, in addition TO GIVE EXAMPLES for example, for instance, to illustrate, in fact, specifically TO COMPARE also, in the same manner, similarly, likewise TO CONTRAST but, however, on the other hand, in contrast, instead, nevertheless, still, even though, on the contrary, yet, although, despite, in spite of, not only...but also TO SUMMARIZE OR CONCLUDE in other words, in short, in summary, in conclusion, to sum up, that is, however TO SHOW TIME after, as, before, next, during, later, finally, meanwhile, in the meantime, since, then, when, while, immediately, subsequently TO SHOW PLACE / DIRECTION above, below, beyond, farther on, nearby, opposite, close, to the left TO INDICATE LOGICAL LINKS if, so, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, for this reason, because, since

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Skilled writers use transitional expressions with care, making sure, for example, not to use “consequently” when “also” would be more precise. Transitions between paragraphs may link the first sentence from one paragraph with either the first or last sentence of the previous paragraph . Transitions connecting paragraphs usually involve incorporating entire transitional phrases or clauses instead of using only transitional expressions.

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IV) How to Write Introductions Although introductions begin essays, they are better written after the development or even the conclusion has been drafted . Until the argument has reached its final focus in the writing process, writing an introduction earlier in the drafting stage can be counter-productive. The introduction is particularly important for clearly indicating your argument. Remember that the thesis statement is best placed as the last sentence of the introduction. The most common strategy to open the introduction is to begin with a few sentences that engage the reader, establish your purpose for writing, and conclude with your thesis statement. Oftentimes, a colourful anecdote or observation is an excellent way to capture the reader’s attention. You may consider from among the patterns indicated above in the section on structuring development paragraphs. Be certain, however, to respect the different demands of different kinds of writing. An approach to keep in mind when drawing the reader towards the thesis statement includes using sentences that hook the reader. Here are some strategies for beginning an introduction:

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1) State the significance of your subject. Ex: More and more young people are dying of heart disease. 2) Use a startling statement. Ex: After the age of 30, the average North American puts on 10 to 20 kilograms of fat. 3) Begin with a generalization related to your topic. Ex: Until the 20th century, physical exercise was part of the normal workday. 4) Challenge a common assumption. Ex: Physical activity is for kids. Adults do not have time to workout at the gym or to join a sports league. 5) Begin with a definition. Ex: Myocardial infarction – the very term is frightening. It occurs when a person’s muscles slacken from disuse, the veins clog up with sticky fats, and the heart has to work too hard to sustain even minor exertion. 6) Describe an interesting incident or tell an anecdote related to your subject. Ex: Last year, I received a free invitation in the mail to a fitness club. I responded out of curiosity, but I needed to be convinced...

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V) How to Write Conclusions The conclusion serves the purpose of reminding the reader of the main ideas without repeating them in a dull or repetitive way . By the end of the development, the reader should fully understand your argument. The conclusion simply drives the main point home and may leave readers with something larger to consider . Often, a good way to provide a larger consideration is to draw out some of the implications of your argument . The conclusion should decisively bring your paper to a close with memorable closing statements .

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Here are some strategies for writing memorable concluding statements: 1) End with a relevant or thought-provoking quotation. 2) Offer a solution to a problem discussed in your paper. 3) End with one or more relevant or thought-provoking questions. 4) Point out the significance or value of your subject. 5) Make a connection to a statement made in your introduction. 6) End with a suggestion for change or a prediction about the future.

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References Green, B., & Norton, S. (2011). Essay essentials with readings (5th ed.). Toronto, Canada: Nelson Education. Hacker, D. (2008). A Canadian writer’s reference (4th ed.). New York, NY: Bedford / St. Martin’s . Hairston, M., & Ruszkiewicz, J. J. (1993). The Scott, Foresman handbook for writers (3rd ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins College Publishers. Quitman Troyka, L. (1999). Handbook for writers (2nd Canadian ed.). Scarborough, Canada: Simon & Schuster.

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