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1 Understanding Historical Discontinuity: A Tapestry of Religion and Reform Lucero Lopez Taft College History 2210-42 Professor Smith December 5, 2023

2 Understanding Historical Discontinuity: A Tapestry of Religion and Reform Introduction Michel Foucault's concept of historical discontinuity is of significance in understanding the evolution of societies over time. This concept posits that history is not a seamless continuum but rather marked by shifts, ruptures, and transformations. Religion encompasses belief systems, rituals, and societal structures that have shaped human civilizations. An exploration of religious history unveils both continuity and discontinuity, underscoring changes in how beliefs are perceived, expressed, and categorized throughout different epochs. This perspective provides the lens through which the history of religion will be examined. As such, this essay aim to decipher the intricate dynamics of belief systems, rituals, and societal structures that have woven in human spirituality. The essay will undertake a broader exploration into the presence of discontinuity in religion laying the groundwork for a comprehensive investigation into the multifaceted aspects of historical change. Overview of Ancient Civilizations In examining the history of ancient civilizations, specifically the religious practices offer a profound glimpse into the process of human history. Mesopotamia and Egypt, cradles of civilization, stand as vivid examples where religious rituals and beliefs were woven intricately into daily life. The continuity in fundamental religious concepts is palpable, with shared themes of reverence for deities, ritualistic ceremonies, and the quest for spiritual meaning echoing across the ages. However, within this continuum lies the potential for intriguing discontinuities. The exploration of religious expression and classification unveils shifts that challenge simplistic narratives. Mesopotamian polytheism, with its pantheon of gods governing different aspects of life, contrasts with the Egyptian emphasis on cosmic

3 order and divine kingship. These variations highlight the complex interplay between continuity and divergence in how societies perceive and manifest their spiritual beliefs. Zooming further into antiquity, the lens widens to the Palaeolithic era, where grooming practices become a unique portal into ancient societies. Judith C. Berman's "Bad Hair Days in the Palaeolithic" provides an illuminating overview, disrupting stereotypes surrounding Neanderthals and Upper Palaeolithic humans 1 . Grooming practices, often dismissed as mere vanity, hold profound implications for understanding social complexity. They serve as markers of identity, social roles, and perhaps even early forms of communication, challenging preconceived notions about the simplicity of ancient lifestyles. As we traverse the landscapes of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and delve into the nuances of Palaeolithic grooming rituals, a rich panorama of human history unfolds. The juxtaposition of continuity and discontinuity paints an intricate picture, illustrating the dynamic evolution of religious beliefs and practices across ancient civilizations. These glimpses into the past beckon us to navigate the interwoven threads of tradition and change, fostering a deeper comprehension of the diverse landscapes that have shaped the human experience Transition to Classical Periods Looking at the transition to classical periods, the landscape of religious developments in ancient Greece and Rome unfolds before us. The analysis of these developments reveals a tapestry woven with threads of mythology and pantheons that exerted a continuous influence. The enduring legacy of Greek and Roman mythology echoes through the ages, shaping cultural narratives and societal norms. Yet, within this continuity, the emergence of philosophical and monotheistic ideas introduces intriguing discontinuities. The classical period witnesses the blossoming of philosophical thought in Greece, challenging traditional 1 Berman, Judith C. "Bad hair days in the Palaeolithic: modern (re) constructions of the cave man." American Anthropologist 101, no. 2 (1999): 288-304 .

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4 mythological explanations. Thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle questioned the pantheon-centric worldview, paving the way for a nuanced understanding of existence and morality. Simultaneously, on the other side of the Mediterranean, Quranic teachings emerge as a beacon of enduring wisdom across millennia. A closer look at Sura 2, "The Cow," in the Quran unravels universal values such as righteousness, charity, and prayer. These values— which have their origins in the Quran—show continuity over time and provide direction to those stepping into a variety of historical situations 2 . The application of Quranic ideas in various temporal circumstances demonstrates the investigation of discontinuities. The application of goodness and compassion changes as societies change, but its fundamental principles never change. This dynamic flexibility highlights the Quran's tenacity as a source of moral and spiritual advice applicable to a wide range of historical and cultural contexts 3 . The continuity and discontinuity of Greek and Roman mythology coexist with the revolutionary currents of philosophical and religious ideas as we go through this area of transition. This story is further enhanced by the Quran's timeless lessons. This investigation prompts us to reflect on the complex relationship between innovation and tradition, offering insightful perspectives on the changing fabric of human spirituality and scholarship 4 . Medieval Period and Rise of Monotheistic Religions When we go through the Middle Ages, we come into a world where monotheistic religions—mostly Christianity and Islam—remain dominant. These religious practices, distinguished by an unwavering devotion to a supreme god, had a significant impact on the 2 “Quran.” 2016. Surah Al-Baqarah [2]. Al-Quran - . ميركلا نآرقلا 2016 . https://quran.com/2. 3 Ibid 4 Ibid

5 sociocultural structure of the Middle Ages. The medieval skyline was studded with churches and mosques that symbolized the continued supremacy of monotheistic religions. These structures served as a spiritual compass for countless people navigating the challenges of daily life. But despite this general consistency, there were significant discontinuities throughout the medieval period, which showed themselves as schisms, reformations, and theological disputes. These splits within monotheistic faiths, like the Great Schism in Christianity, are prime examples of the internal conflicts that put these belief systems' unity to the test 5 . Religious leaders and theologians argued passionately, questioning accepted beliefs and practices, which caused religious groups to split apart and give birth to new sects. In addition, the Middle Ages served as a testing ground for disputes over religion that went beyond denominational lines. The Crusades were a sequence of military actions driven by religious beliefs that represented a substantial shift from the traditional methods of religious dissemination 6 . These conflicts underscore the complexity of the medieval religious landscape, where continuity coexisted with radical shifts in the understanding and practice of faith. Analysing the shifts in religious authority and practices during this epoch unveils a nuanced picture of adaptability and transformation 7 . Religious institutions navigated the intricate interplay of political power, societal dynamics, and theological interpretations. The rise of religious orders, the establishment of monastic communities, and the articulation of religious doctrines reflected a continuous negotiation between spiritual ideals and the pragmatic realities of the medieval world. 5 Maghenzani, Simone. "The Protestant Reformation in Counter-Reformation Italy, c. 1550–1660: an overview of new evidence." Church history 83, no. 3 (2014): 571-589. 6 Ibid 7 Boussalem, Hana, and Ilhem Mahout. "Semantic Loss at Word Level in Quran Translation Case of Two Translated Versions of Surat El-Baqarah (The Cow) by AJ Arberry & AY Ali." PhD diss.

6 In parallel, the exploration of Gilgamesh and the revaluation of women's roles injects a comparative thread into the medieval narrative 8 . Karen Sonik's examination of female characters in the Epic of Gilgamesh challenges preconceived notions rooted in ancient literature, highlighting a discontinuity in the perception of women 9 . This reassessment transcends archetypal representations, introducing nuanced female characters whose impact extends beyond conventional roles. In essence, the medieval period emerges as a crucible of continuity and discontinuity. The dominance of monotheistic religions persisted amidst the invite’s contemplation on the intricate interplay of tradition and transformation that characterized this pivotal era in the history of religion. Renaissance and Enlightenment Transition to the Renaissance and Enlightenment, the historical tapestry undergoes intricate weaving, mirroring both the continuity and discontinuity within the realm of religious evolution. The exploration of this era unveils the persistent threads of established religious institutions, woven into the fabric of societal norms and power structures. Cathedrals and religious authorities maintained a visible presence, embodying the enduring legacy of religious institutions even as the intellectual winds of change gathered strength. Simultaneously, the Renaissance and Enlightenment were marked by pronounced discontinuities, most notably in the rise of secularism, scepticism, and new religious interpretations. The flourishing of intellectual pursuits and artistic expressions heralded an era where reason and empirical inquiry challenged the traditional stronghold of religious dogma. The emergence of secular thought and the questioning of established religious narratives signalled a departure from the medieval worldview. 8 George, Andrew. "What's new in the Gilgamesh Epic?" Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 34 (1999): 51-58. 9 Sonik, Karen. “Minor and Marginal (ized)? Rethinking Women as Minor Characters in the Epic of Gilgamesh” Journal of the American Oriental Society 141, no. 4 (2021).

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7 Analyzing changing perceptions of religious authority and knowledge during this epoch unveils a transformative landscape. The authority that was once solely vested in religious institutions now faced competition from burgeoning scientific inquiry and individual philosophical introspection. The Enlightenment intellectuals challenged the dominance of religious organizations by bringing about a paradigm change in the perception of authority via their focus on reason and human agency. The Renaissance and Enlightenment converge with Quranic teachings, Palaeolithic grooming customs, and the reimagining of women's roles in Gilgamesh, among other themes that cut across historical boundaries 10 . Over time and across cultural borders, common threads develop that indicate shared human experiences. This synthesis highlights the universal components of human experience that endure despite the subtle variations in religious and cultural perspectives, offering insights into the larger implications of historical discontinuity. Thus, the Renaissance and Enlightenment represent a crucial period in history when extreme deviations blend with continuity. The secular forces of scepticism and secularism coexist with the enduring power of religious institutions, weaving a complex web that captures the dynamic interaction between continuity and discontinuity in the ever-changing history of religion. Globalization and the Modern Era We must navigate the intricate interaction between continuity and discontinuity in the field of religious ideas and practices as we go into the Modern period and the globalized period. The analysis of continuity is shown by the continued predominance of various religious perspectives. The lasting character of human spirituality is shown by the fact that, despite social changes and technological breakthroughs, a variety of religious doctrines and 10 George, Andrew. "What's new in the Gilgamesh Epic?" Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 34 (1999): 51-58.

8 practices continue to be woven into the fabric of religion. But within this continuity, we see notable discontinuities shaped by the effects of secularization and scientific progress. A paradigm shift has occurred as a result of science's unrelenting progress, casting doubt on established religious narratives and forcing a re-evaluation of belief systems. The landscape of social values and norms has changed as a result of the advent of secularization and the subsequent decrease of religious authority in public domains. These alterations are reminiscent of Foucault's discontinuity theory, which holds that new patterns arise in reaction to shifting ideologies and the historical fabric changes. Furthermore, it becomes clear that globalization is a dynamic force influencing religious contacts and activities everywhere. The interchange of religious concepts, practices, and beliefs has been made easier by the interconnection of cultures, resulting in a tapestry influenced by a variety of cultural notions. This phenomenon introduces fresh viewpoints and questions accepted standards, both bridging and disrupting historical continuities. Examining the impact of globalization, we see the emergence of an international religious conversation in which many traditions converge, blend together, and even collide. Technology is making it easier for information to travel, and this allows religious conversations to take place beyond geographic borders. This dynamic connection gives rise to discontinuities in the reconfiguration of religious landscapes impacted by global connectivity and continuity in the worldwide search for spiritual significance. We discover a story where continuity and discontinuity converge as we negotiate the complexity of the Modern Era and globalization, highlighting the dynamic character of religion in a world that is changing quickly. The Ninety-Five Theses of Martin Luther: An Impulse for Reform Written in 1517, Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses are considered a turning point in Christian history since they sparked the Protestant Reformation 11 . Luther prepared the way 11 Luther, Martin. "Ninety-five theses." 120 banned (2011): 277.

9 for his later theses by challenging the pope's authority and the idea of purgatory in the introduction. He examined the forgiveness of sins, examined penitential canons, and questioned the position of the pope in the context of widespread clerical corruption. The main defences of indulgences and preacher methods are found in theses 15–82. Luther discussed the dread of purgatory, questioned the authority of the pope, and examined the strategies indulgence preachers used. His focus on genuine repentance and the restrictions on indulgences marked a significant break from the norm for religious activities. The next theses, 83–89, demonstrated Luther's unique style choice—he used the word "Again" many times—and included criticisms on funeral masses, the pope's and God's piety, and the building of St. Peter's Basilica 12 . Luther employed this repetition strategically to emphasize key points and drive his arguments home. In the concluding theses, 90-95, Luther summarized his argument, asserting that indulgences do not possess the authority to forgive sins. He contended that only the pope and priests held such authority, challenging the existing religious hierarchy 13 . Luther's overarching message challenged the established order, advocating for a return to the core tenets of Christian faith. Conclusion In conclusion, the exploration of historical discontinuity, guided by Michel Foucault's concept, has unravelled a rich tapestry of religious evolution and reform. The journey through ancient civilizations revealed both continuity and discontinuity in religious practices, exemplified by Mesopotamia and Egypt. As we transitioned to classical periods, the enduring influence of mythology and pantheons persisted, while the emergence of philosophical and monotheistic ideas marked a significant departure. The medieval period witnessed the dominance of monotheistic religions, particularly Christianity and Islam, with the simultaneous occurrence of schisms, reformations, and religious conflicts, underscoring the 12 Ibid 13 Ibid

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10 dual nature of religious evolution. The examination of Gilgamesh and the re-evaluation of women's roles added nuanced layers, highlighting discontinuities in the perception of women in ancient literature 14 . Moving into the Renaissance and Enlightenment, the persistence of established religious institutions coexisted with the rise of secularism, scepticism, and new religious interpretations. Synthesizing themes from Palaeolithic grooming, Quranic teachings, and Gilgamesh demonstrated shared human experiences across eras, emphasizing the complexity of historical continuity and discontinuity. The examination of Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses showcased a pivotal moment in religious history, where Luther challenged papal authority and indulgences, contributing to the Protestant Reformation. Luther's emphasis on true contrition and his critique of religious practices exemplified both continuity and discontinuity. As we reflect on the entire journey, it becomes evident that recognizing both continuity and discontinuity is imperative for a comprehensive understanding of religious history. This acknowledgment enriches our comprehension of the intricate interplay between tradition and transformation, providing valuable insights into the dynamic nature of religious beliefs and practices. The dialogue between continuity and discontinuity in religious history echoes through time, shaping not only our understanding of the past but also influencing the ongoing evolution of religious thought. 14 George, Andrew. "What's new in the Gilgamesh Epic?" Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 34 (1999): 51-58.

11 Bibliography Berman, Judith C. "Bad hair days in the Palaeolithic: modern (re) constructions of the cave man." American Anthropologist 101, no. 2 (1999): 288-304. Boussalem, Hana, and Ilhem Mahout. "Semantic Loss at Word Level in Quran Translation Case of Two Translated Versions of Surat El-Baqarah (The Cow) by AJ Arberry & AY Ali." PhD diss. George, Andrew. "What's new in the Gilgamesh Epic?" Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 34 (1999): 51-58. George, Andrew. The Epic of Gilgamesh. A New Translation. Allen Lane the Penguin Press, Maghenzani, Simone. "The Protestant Reformation in Counter-Reformation Italy, c. 1550– 1660: an overview of new evidence." Church history 83, no. 3 (2014): 571-589. Sonik, Karen. “Minor and Marginal (ized)? Rethinking Women as Minor Characters in the Epic of Gilgamesh” Journal of the American Oriental Society 141, no. 4 (2021). Luther, Martin. "Ninety-five theses." 120 banned (2011): 277. 1999. “Quran.” 2016. Surah Al-Baqarah [2]. Al-Quran - . ميركلا نآرقلا 2016 . https://quran.com/2.

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