SWP 638 NOTES

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SWP 638 NOTES WEEK ONE- ● As discussed by Denzin and Lincoln (2000), qualitative research in North America has had a long history known as the eight moments of qualitative research. ○ Traditional Period: Early 1900s to World War II ■ This was the period when anthropological, ethnographic accounts were written by colonizers about natives living in their colonies. These accounts provided a detailed account of native culture as though it was stationary and of the Other (natives) as objects. ○ Modernist Phase: Postwar years to the 1970s ■ This phase was marked by post-positivism, a paradigm that signaled the importance of conducting qualitative research with the same rigour as quantitative research. In other words, it was believed that qualitative methodology should have a series of systematic steps and should be able to generalize findings as quantitative research. Many approaches of qualitative inquiry, such as grounded theory and phenomenology, developed during this phase. ○ Blurred Genres: 1970 to 1986 ■ The third moment was marked by a full-fledged development of different approaches of inquiry, methods of data collection and analysis of qualitative data. One of the critical developments during this phase was the realization among scholars that all anthropological writings were interpretations of interpretations, recognition that the cultural representations that were made in earlier writings were actually a researcher’s interpretations. This realization led to the development of the next phase ○ Crisis of Representation: Mid-1980s ■ The fourth moment, the Crisis of Representation, started from mid 1980s onwards when there was an erosion of old norms governing anthropological writings. Three critical developments occurred during this phase: representation, legitimation and praxis. ■ Representation: There was a realization that research accounts are just one way of representing reality and that a researcher’s representations are influenced by her/ his social location. Based on this reflexivity, an examination of issues of race, gender and class appeared in research and writings. ■ Legitimation: Scholars also found traditional criteria for evaluating qualitative research problematic. They questioned old criteria such as

validity, generalizability and reliability as criteria of assessing qualitative research. ■ Praxis: For the first time, questions such as the possibility of research to effect change were raised. With this the concept of praxis, action- reflection-action gained importance. ○ Postmodern Period of Experimental Ethnographic Writings: Mid-1990s onwards ■ This phase was marked by acceptance of various forms of knowledge from previously marginalized groups as valid knowledge. There was also a shift from grand narratives to local, specific theories impacting the purpose of research. Additionally, participatory and action oriented research became more prevalent. ○ Post-Experimental Inquiry: 1995 to 2000 ■ The sixth moment saw the emergence of novel/creative forms of expressing lived experiences. These forms included literary, poetic, autobiographical, multivoiced, visual, performative and co-constructed representations and gained credibility as valid research. ○ Methodologically Contested Period: 2000 to 2004 ■ During the seventh moment, there emerged considerable disagreement about how qualitative research should be conducted and the direction it should be taking. This period also saw the emergence of evidence-based research as the gold standard in research and simultaneously the rise of Indigenous social sciences and decolonization of the Western academy. ○ Traditional Period: Early 1900s to World War II ■ This was the period when anthropological, ethnographic accounts were written by colonizers about natives living in their colonies. These accounts provided a detailed account of native culture as though it was stationary and of the Other (natives) as objects. Tensions within the Qualitative Research Camp …there are four camps that currently exist in qualitative research (Padgett, 2008): ● Camp against positivism; ● constructivism; ● research focused on social justice and inequalities and ● pragmatism (p. 7). Evidence-Based Research

Gray, Haynes and Richardson (1996), “ Evidence-based practice is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individuals” (p.71). Rationale for Using EBR The following are some of the rationale for using EBR: ● Reduce wide variations in individual’s practices ● Eliminate worst practices ● Enhance best practices so that it is possible to standardize and maximize good practice. As per this rationale, standardization would reduce cost and improve quality. Evidence Within EBR 1. Meta analysis, systematic reviews and clinical guidelines 2. Randomized controlled trial and quasi-experimental studies 3. Case control studies, cohort studies, pre-experimental group studies 4. Surveys 5. Qualitative studies 6. Opinion of respected authorities (not provided in Figure 1.1, but comes only after all of the above) ● EBR is challenged for privileging certain methods, such as randomized control trials (RCT) (discussed in quantitative research) and experimental studies, and attributing these methods as scientific; whereas, qualitative methodology of research ranks low on the hierarchy of evidence. Concept of Qualitative Research

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● “… Qualitative research ... involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world…. It involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials … that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives. Qualitative researchers deploy a wide range of interconnected practices hoping to get a better understanding of the subject at hand” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). ● qualitative research is about gathering individual perspectives on various phenomena. The interviews are conducted in their natural surroundings and the findings that researchers present are understood as an interpretation, based in researcher’s subject position and experiences. Markers of Qualitative Research ● A qualitative researcher skillfully pieces together various approaches of inquiry, various theoretical or conceptual frameworks, political perspectives and methods. ● In qualitative research, multiple methods (triangulation) are not used as a tool of validation, but as an alternative. Other markers of qualitative research: ● Insider perspectives, rather than outsider ● Person centred, rather than variable centred ● Contextual, rather than decontextual ● Depth, rather than breadth Indigenous Approaches to Inquiry Indigenous approaches tend to have the following characteristics: ● They are holistic: Spirit, Heart, Mind and Body ● They are multi-perspective/polycentric/pluralistic, like petals ● They are eclectic ● They are flexible Spirit: Protocols, Ceremony and Honour ● Spirituality is central in Indigenous methodologies. According to Raven, spiritual paradigm and sacred epistemology are: ● Used to incorporate prayer, ceremony, dreams and cultural protocols ● Guided by dreams, visions, ceremonies and prayers. Ceremonies provide a channel to heal, cleanse, seek knowledge and gain insight to make decisions This establishes a respectful relationship with Spirit. The methodology also is grounded in reciprocity and offering of gifts. Heart: Relationships, Reciprocity and Community

Indigenous methodologies emphasize relationship for reconnecting, remembering, reclaiming. Strategies focus on creating a positive research setting by: ● Choosing a good location ● Conducting prior visits, spending time and building a trustful relationship with participants ● Planning community gatherings and meetings that reflect friendship ● Sharing food, ceremonies ● Engaging in conversations about the future, families, communities and children ● Not recording events Mind: Respecting Indigenous Knowledge This is demonstrated by: ● Respecting and reclaiming Indigenous knowledge ● Acknowledging the knowledge of Elders, Indigenous scholars, community members; ● Creating visibility for people who share their knowledge in the research document. In doing so, the stance against colonialism is demonstrated. This strategy asserts for the genealogy of Indigenous knowledge, advancing Indigenous perspectives, and privileging Indigenous scholars in their research. Body: Doing, Working and Creating Attention is paid to this dimension by: ● Becoming involved; ● Embodying the search by participating, experiencing and reflecting on activities that have spiritual, emotional, physical and mental dimensions and ● Focusing on undertaking walks, visiting Elders, attending ceremonies and prayers, and working with a core group and allies. Indigenous methodologies centre around the following three values: ● Incorporating teachings from family, culture and traditional teachers ● Family and community participation ● Community-based protocols that engage various members/subgroups/Elders of the community through consultations/meetings WEEK TWO- Narrative Inquiry ● Narrative inquiry is both an approach to inquiry as well as a technique of data analysis. Narrative inquiry is conducted when the focus of a researcher is on highlighting factors that have shaped the life and/or identity of individuals. In doing so, narrative inquiry accomplishes its purpose of personal and/or social change. ● Narrative inquiry is grounded in the constructivist orientation which believes humans construct meaning and knowledge from their own experience. Hence, there is no single

reality, and the interpretation of a given reality could differ from one person to another based on their varying experiences. In doing so, it creates space for participants to construct their narrative based on their experience. ● As discussed by Padgett, there are different types of narratives. A researcher selects the type of inquiry based on the purpose that the researcher wants to accomplish through the research. There are two ways in which narrative analysis is conducted: ● By re-storying the narrative chronologically and by highlighting milestones that are relevant in the context of the narrative ● By doing thematic analysis (for further reading refer Frazer, 2004). Phenomenology ● Phenomenology is generally used when a researcher wants to gain insight into the most critical factors underlying the lived experience of individuals experiencing a phenomenon, for example, the phenomenon of homelessness. ● phenomenology is grounded in postpositivism ● Scholars who believe in constructionism have developed interpretive phenomenology. This phenomenology has moved away from its earlier postpositivist orientation. The underlying assumption made in this type of phenomenology is that human realities are always impacted by the world within which participants live. The research question in phenomenology focuses on two aspects: 1. Obaining a textural description of the phenomenon: Asking questions such as “What have you experienced about the phenomenon?”, “Do you have a mental image of …?” 2. Obtaining a structural description of the phenomenon: Asking questions such as “What context or situation has influenced your experience?”, “How would you describe the situation?”, “What feelings come to your mind?”, “What meaning does it have in your life?” ● Data analysis in phenomenology is done thematically by identifying and grouping similar ideas into themes and presenting them in ways that convey the essence of the textural and structural description of the phenomenon. Grounded Theory There are two types of grounded theories: 1. Systematic grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1968) 2. Constructivist grounded theory developed by Charmaz (2006) ● The systematic grounded theory is postpositivist in its orientation. ○ Namely to develop a substantive theory related to the topic that is being researched. ○ Grounded theory also prescribes a set procedure for data collection and analysis akin to quantitative research orientation, which makes it postpositivist. Critical features of Charmaz’s and Bryant’s constructivist grounded theory are based in the importance of research process as demonstrated through:

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● The importance of establishing a relationship with participants ● The co-creation of theory by participants and researcher ● Keeping findings grounded within their context Generally, grounded theory is undertaken in situations where there is very little knowledge existing on the research issue. Based on the theory development focus of grounded theory, the research questions focus on the following aspects: ● “What was central to the process of …/the phenomenon of …?” ● “What caused it?” ● “What strategies were used?” ● “What was the impact?” The data analysis in both types of grounded theory focuses on initial categorization: ● Open coding and identification of a central category about the phenomenon ● Axial coding and development of a storyline that integrates the categories ● Central phenomenon, causes, context and consequences Ethnography ● Was used popularly during colonial times by visitors who provided a detailed account of the life and people living in colonies to share with people in their home country. ● The purpose of ethnography is to provide a description of a cultural group. Realist ethnography is the conventional ethnography that focuses on providing a descriptive account of a cultural group. On the other hand, Critical ethnography focuses on advocating for the emancipation of marginalized groups. Critical ethnography is used by researchers to expose power and oppression experienced by a cultural/marginalized community. Auto ethnography is yet another type of Ethnography wherein a researcher uses their own personal experience to highlight social and political issues experienced by a cultural group and bring about change. ● Often researchers combine elements of Critical ethnography with Auto ethnography. The purpose of such Critical Auto ethnography to address issues of injustice and inequity experienced by a cultural group with the ultimate purpose of emancipation of that group. Case Study ● A case study is undertaken when the purpose of research is to study either a very successful or a failed case so that readers benefit from the inferences that are drawn from its in-depth study. WEEK THREE-

Type of Qualitative Research Role of Text Narrative research Text is in the form of stories. It is the “how events are storied” (Riessman & Quinney, 2005). Grounded theory Text takes the form of data for theory development. The text exists as codes that “start the chain of theory development” (Charmaz, 2006). Phenomenology Text takes the form of representations of lived experience. It “transforms lived experiences into a textual expression of its essence” (Van Manen, 2006). Critical discourse analysis Text is constitutive of social relations, identity, knowledge, and power; text represents the “production of social life in social practices” (Fairclough, 2000). What is a Discourse? Discourse refers to ways of thinking and speaking about aspects of reality What is the Purpose Served by a Discourse? Discourses are constructed during particular times for accomplishing a specific purpose in the larger societal context. What is Discourse Analysis? Discourse analysis considers words as politicized and focuses on how social relations, identity, knowledge, and power are constructed through written and spoken texts. The analysis deconstructs the text and looks beneath the words. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis (FDA) Foucault gave importance to gaining an insight into the historical context when certain discourses were privileged and other discourses were discontinued In archeological analysis , Foucault charts the development of certain discursive practices to demonstrate that discourses constantly change and their origins can be traced to certain key shifts in history.

According to Foucault, discourses are linked to power and, at any given point in time, only certain discourses are privileged and get circulated (through publication), whereas other discourses get discontinued. Arts-Based Inquiry (ABI) Arts-based inquiry (ABI) first developed in the historical moment of “Crisis of Representation” in the evolution of qualitative research in North America ABI aims at transcending the limitations of postpositivism through its focus on using the local art forms, using the vernacular to capture the visceral reactions/responses of participants. In using these unconventional tools, ABI creates space for inquiry and expression, for participants to engage with the inquiry. The purpose of ABI is to educate, enhance capacities and mobilize marginalized communities using their art forms. WEEK FOUR- Mixed Methods Concept and Purpose Mixed methods design , i.e., mixing quantitative and qualitative methodology, is a complicated research design, as it involves working with different methods When and How Do Re searchers Mix Methods? Researchers generally do not mix methods at paradigmatic levels because it is complicated and requires solid justification. The extent of mixing depends on the nature of the design as shown by Padgett. However, it has been observed that the common practice is to mix data during data analysis—known as quantitizing and qualitizing data. Methods of Data Collection Amenable for Mixed Methods ● Qualitative methods – focus groups are a popular choice of mixing whereas life history interviews and ethnographic observations are not amenable for mixed methods. ● Quantitative methods– standardized interviews and surveys are amenable to mixing whereas RCT are not. ● Quantilizing data – converting qualitative data into numbers and variables – content analysis* ● Qualitizing data – creating profiles or categorical types from scores on standardized measures – mixing of standardized surveys and qualitative interviews is most common* Quantitizing data means converting qualitative data into quantitative data,

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● e.g., collecting demographic information of participants before a qualitative interview and presenting information on their profile diagrammatically or using a chart. Qualitizing data means converting quantitative data into qualitative data, ● e.g., providing a description of characteristics of people who are social drinkers and habitual drinkers. Types of Mixed Methods Designs The two most popular mixed methods designs are: Sequential and Concurrent Designs. Se quential designs are those designs wherein the quantitative and qualitative designs follow one another 1. QUAL -> quan - This is a sequential design where qualitative component is the dominant part of research. This is denoted by showing qualitative in capital letters. The qualitative study is followed by a small quantitative component. For instance, Most often this design is used in situations where researchers are conducting an exploratory / descriptive research as there is not enough information existing on the topic. Hence, the researchers focus on gathering qualitative data and utilize the data gathered from the qualitative research to develop categories for closed ended questions for a quantitative study. 2. qual -> QUAN - As seen through its lettering this sequential design denotes that qualitative component is the less dominant part of the research leading to the quantitative research which is the dominant part of the research. The purpose of this research is very similar to the above study i.e. to gather more information on the research topic to develop a survey or a measurement instrument for a large quantitative study. The focus of the researchers in this situation is to conduct a substantial quantitative research. 3. QUAN -> qual - As indicated, this design has a major quantitative component followed by a small qualitative component. Often, researchers conduct qualitative interviews and gather first voices / narratives of participants to support their quantitative findings. 4. quan -> QUAL - This is a situation wherein the main event of the research is the qualitative study. However, in this context researchers tend to conduct a small online / face-to-face/ telephone survey to gather some preliminary information about the participants. The researchers also utilize the opportunity they get to look for participants who may have a rich story to tell about their experiences and invite them for a follow up qualitative interview or a focus group discussion. The main purpose of the study is to present qualitative data from the research. Concurrent designs are those designs wherein both the quantitative and qualitative components of the study take place simultaneously. 1. QUAL + quan - this is an example of a design where the study is mainly qualitative and when the researcher is gathering data through a personal interview or focus group that the researcher also administers a scale to the participants or uses secondary / archival data. The researcher presents the results of both the quantitative and qualitative components of the design but, may strategically decide to qualitize the quantitative data or maintain the quantitative data as is.

2. QUAN + Qual - This is a situation wherein the quantitative research is the main event but while the researcher is conducting a quantitative study the researcher, at the same time also conducts qualitative interviews with the purpose of traingulation or complementarity. 3. Sometimes researchers also give equal importance to both quantitative and qualitative aspects in their research. These studies are not very common as such studies require tremendous time and funding. Such studies are denoted by the letters QUAN+QUAL. Complicated designs are studies where the design is complicated in terms of the use of multiple forms of data collection and mixing of quantitative and qualitative aspects of the study at multiple points. ● However, it should be noted that a large survey with a few open-ended questions cannot be considered as a mixed methods design. Similarly, a qualitative study that may include a scale or a qualitative study conducted long after a quantitative study cannot be considered as a mixed methods design. Debates on Mixing Methods First, some scholars hold the view that quantitative and qualitative methods are paradigmatically incompatible and hence cannot be combined. However, scholars who believe in a pragmatic approach to research accept the use of multiple paradigms and therefore, mix methods. Second, scholars have also raised an objection that generally mixed methods privileges positivism and marginalizes interpretivism. Based on this rationale, they do not support mixed methods.

NOTES: H. Parada & S. Wehbi (Eds.), Reimagining anti-oppression social work research Preston, S. & Redgrift, L. (2017) 87-97 ● Phenomenological inquiry can be problematic, mostly due to conﬂation of its two main approaches: descriptive and interpretive approaches. ● there are potential tensions between phenomenological inquiry and AOP, which may explain why social work research has engaged only minimally with phenomenology. ● There are limitations of social work scholarship regarding phenomenology, both as a philosophical foundation and as an approach to research ● phenomenology aims to examine the lived experiences of humans within a specific context ● While both forms of phenomenology share an interpretive theoretical paradigm, the perspectives of each approach vary with respect to their view of human experience, specifically regarding context and essence. ○ Descriptive phenomenology (developed by Edmund Husserl) attempts to comprehend the meaning of human experience, viewing reality as being embedded in the lived experience of the individual, as something that is independent of context ■ aims to uncover what humans experience before they interpret or reﬂect upon it as the true essence of a phenomenon

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○ Interpretive phenomenology (originated by Martin Heidegger) strives to create understanding through illuminating details within the lived experience by emphasizing the history and context of the individual’s experience ■ assumes that human reality is always impacted by the world, including social, cultural, and political factors (Lopez & Willis, 2004), and considers social context, culture, and history ● The life world as a mechanism of understanding is thus dissimilar between the two approaches. ● Four elements of knowledge-building: axiology, epistemology, ontology, and methodology. ○ The axiology of phenomenological inquiry values the lived experience and describes the understanding of the experience, including the values of the researcher (Hart, 1997). ■ In descriptive phenomenology, the experience itself has value; however, ■ in interpretive phenomenology, the meaning of the experience appears to have greater value, perhaps because the lived experience itself is an interpretive process (Dowling, 2007). ○ Epistemologically, phenomenological inquiry recognizes the meaning of an experience as a justifiable source of knowledge, drawn from how someone lives, interprets, and conceptualizes their own experience (Pietersma, 2000; Westphal, 2003).

■ In descriptive phenomenology, the researcher seeks to limit, neutralize, and counter their inﬂuence on the research process, including on the participants, understood as “transcendental subjectivity”. ■ Interpretive phenomenology references “intersubjectivity” as a way of creating knowledge through the “fusion of horizons” between the researcher and the participant. ○ Ontology recognizes that one’s experience is reﬂective, subjective, contemplative, and contextual (e.g., Laverty, 2003), and thus reality is “constituted” by what one has experienced. ■ In descriptive phenomenology, each person’s reality is constituted in the pre-reﬂective, non-interpreted lived experience as a form of “radical autonomy” (Lopez & Willis, 2004, p. 728). ■ Interpretive phenomenology assumes each person’s reality is inﬂuenced by their relationship with their world, as a form of “situated freedom” ○ Methodology is a process that is inductive, iterative, and emerging, whereby the “phenomena dictates [ sic ] method” ■ Within descriptive phenomenology, the principal focus is to gather stories (experiences, beliefs, and feelings) about the phenomenon, allowing for rich descriptions of that experience (Groenewald, 2004). ■ In interpretive phenomenology, the inquiry itself becomes meaningful partly through a researcher’s interpretive approach by means of a

reciprocal process between the participant and the researcher (as a hermeneutic circle). ● George, P. (2017) 29-38 ● Knowledge mobilization is a significant aspect of such research as it entails bringing together multiple stakeholder ○ Developing e ective knowledge mobilization strategies becomes an integral ff aspect of research process ● Dissemination, knowledge transfer, and knowledge exchange are practices that are unidirectional in nature and presuppose a transfer of information from a researcher to practitioners and other stakeholders in the research. This view does not fit well with the critical and anti-oppression research that believes that knowledge is socially constructed and political. ● Bennet and Bennet (2008) describe knowledge mobilization as “collaborative entanglement”; knowledge mobilization allows people to purposely and consistently develop and support approaches and processes that combine the sources of knowledge and the beneficiaries of that knowledge to interactively move toward a common direction

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○ Phipps, Johnny, and Zanotti (2009) View- A method that encompasses a collection of services developed to enhance the connection between researchers and stakeholders to inﬂuence practices and policies. ○ Activating Change Together for Community Food Security (ACT for CFS; 2014) View- Visualizes knowledge mobilization within the context of participatory action research (PAR) as a process wherein researchers and community members co-construct knowledge through iterative processes. ● (1) scholars note the continual process of knowledge co-creation enables knowledge to be contextually relevant. ● Habermas (1972) has identified three types of knowledge: instrumental or traditional scientific knowledge that is expert driven; interactive knowledge that is gained from people’s experiences; and critical knowledge that is grounded in reﬂective thinking and action. ● (2)In order for knowledge mobilization to be e ective, the research must be relevant to ff communities’ social issues, and the resulting knowledge must help to address those issues ● (3)strong relationships are key to e ective knowledge mobilization ff ● (4)e ective knowledge mobilization depends on the engagement of all research ff stakeholders in an ongoing learning process ● (5)taking action on the knowledge generated through research requires capacity building. The lack of capacity to convert research findings into action could result in a loss of useful knowledge. ● (6)knowledge mobilization strategies should be adaptable and multidisciplinary.

● (7)any e ective knowledge mobilization e ort should be holistic, far-reaching, and long- ff ff lasting in nature. ● According to Briggs and colleagues (2015), a knowledge mobilization strategy must take into account the following factors: the context within which research is taking place; the nature of research findings; the nature of expected outcomes; the stakeholders who will be most a ected by the findings; the stakeholders who have the power to make decisions; ff and the various stakeholder groups’ expected level of engagement. ● The agency: ○ Planned to conduct a study to explore older adults’ living conditions and the factors that led to material deprivation, and to obtain older adults’ recommendations to e ect change. ff ○ conducted a Community Action Research (CAR) study. ○ contacts in both communities were established by going to places visited older adults ○ The data were gathered through a number of community dialogues that honoured the communities’ relational ways of knowing and sharing knowledge. ○ The dialogues were conducted on the principle of reciprocity— that is, members of the research team also answered questions, provided information that members wanted, and responded to any requests for help with action on a pressing need for an individual or a family ○ the dialogues were conducted in Urdu and Farsi, the spoken languages in the two neighbourhoods.

○ After the findings had been presented to and approved by the older adults and the RAC members, a discussion of knowledge mobilization strategies was launched. ○ Each neighbourhood felt national pride for their country of origin and heritage, and simultaneously felt prejudice, a lack of trust, and a reluctance to work with the other community on any issue. ○ felt that the most suitable strategy of knowledge mobilization would be to use critical art forms that are grounded in cultural traditions of both communities, which had the potential to unsettle the status quo and initiate dialogue and action. ○ the first neighbourhood decided to perform a play. For many community members, theatre has been used predominantly as a form of protest and resistance against political, religious, and gender-based oppression in their country of origin ○ The second neighbourhood opted to use mushaira , a poetry recital, as a knowledge mobilization strategy. ○ As Lee (2011) suggests, the presence of community members in large numbers could be attributed to their interest in the art form as well as their identification with the issue. ● such performances make social change and activism feel less threatening. The message of collective action presented in the play served to inspire realistic hope that change is possible, which allowed community members to collectively seek ways to address their challenges and rea rmed their political agency in the days following the events (Freire, ﬃ 2000).

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● There are challenges associated with using the arts for knowledge mobilization. Employing art in this manner, however, makes research a meaningful endeavour for marginalized communities, activists, and researchers who are committed to equity, social justice, and change. PRACTICE/TEST QUESTIONS WEEKS 1-4: 1. According to Padgett, which of the following questions relate to ethnography? a. Interpretation of cultural behaviour 2. According to Padgett, chronicling a “day in the life” of a group or individual is an analytical concept used in which method of qualitative inquiry? a. Ethnography 3. In grounded theory research: ALL a. The research participants chosen for the interview are theoretically chosen 4. Bracketing in phenomenology is done to ensure that: a. Researchers prepare themselves to gain a fresh perspective b. Researchers do not impose their own meanings to the data emerging from the dialogue c. Researchers suspend prior knowledge of the phenomenon d. **All of these are reasons why researchers bracket 5. Arts-based inquiry: BOTH a. Uses artistic practices as tools of inquiry, engages in critical social analysis b. Is grounded in community collaboration and engagement, along with the researcher’s commitment to initiate the journey with people 6. Foucauldian theory argues: a. Discourses are constantly vying for power and they operate in such a way as to marginalize other discourses 7. According to Teghtsoonian, which discourse(s) are challenging the circulating discourses in the policy documents? a. Discourse of care in the community 8. While conducting focus groups, a researcher also collects some quantitative data by administering a scale to all participants. This design is: a. Concurrent 9. Mixed methods use triangulation for:

a. Comparison and corroboration 10. Sequential designs in mixed methods refer to the: a. Way a research study’s parts are prioritized 11. Community-based participatory research is a: a. Perspective/lens/framework/orientation that guides research 12. Rigour in the context of participatory action research involves: a. Balancing between trustworthiness and relevance of research 13. Historical evolution of qualitative methods has meant that the methods have: ALL a. Grown from their postpositivist tradition. b. Adopted constructivist and postmodern paradigms. c. Recognized experiences of historically marginalized groups as true knowledge. d. **All of the above 14. In qualitative research, “bricolage” refers to: a. Weaving together theoretical, political, methodological aspects in a way that the woven whole is greater than the sum of its part QUIZ #1-Required Readings Textbook ● Padgett, D.K. (2017). Qualitative methods in context. In Qualitative methods in social work research . (3rd ed., pp. 1–29). Sage. ● Padgett, D.K. (2017). Choosing the right qualitative approach(es). In Qualitative methods in social work research (3rd ed., pp. 31–56). Sage. ● Preston, S. & Redgrift, L. (2017). Phenomenology as social work inquiry: Parallels and divergences with anti-oppressive research. In H. Parada & S. Wehbi (Eds.), Reimagining anti-oppression social work research (pp. 87–97). Canadian Scholars’ Press. ● George, P. (2017). Critical arts-based research: An effective strategy for knowledge mobilization and community activism. In H. Parada & S. Wehbi (Eds.), Reimagining anti-oppression social work research (pp. 29–38). Canadian Scholars’ Press. ● Padgett, D.K. (2017). Mixed methods. In Qualitative methods in social work research . (3rd ed., pp. 255–278). Sage. E-reserve ● Absolon, K. (2011). The petals: Diverse methodologies. In Kaandossiwin: How we come to know (pp. 118–139). Fernwood Publishing. ● Charmaz, K. & Bryant, A. (2008). Grounded theory. In L. Given (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (pp. 375–377). Sage. ● Arribas-Ayllon, M., & Walkerdine, V. (2017). Foucauldian discourse analysis. In C. Willig & W. Stainton-Rogers (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research in psychology (2nd ed., pp. 110–123). Sage Publications Ltd.

WEEK FIVE The Purpose of Community Based Participatory Action Research History of CBPAR The history of community based participatory action research (CBPAR) is rooted in conflict theories and social change movements such as Kurt Lewin’s (1948) theory of action research, critical social science perspectives, Marx and Engels, the Gramsci and Frankfurt schools and the liberation movements of Central and Southern Americas (Paulo Freire) and other developing countries—essentially, grassroots groups involved in fundamental transformation. What is CBPAR? PAR is a framework of research that empowers people to take effective action towards improving the conditions in their lives. Participants study issues or conditions that directly impact their lives. CBPAR has also been known as action research, community-based research (research for, with and by), feminist research (emphasizes constructivist, participatory perspectives), multicultural or culturally relevant research. Purpose of CBPAR PAR’s purpose is to bring forward the demands and critique from the “margins” (hooks, 1984, as cited in Fine, 2007). PAR legitimizes democratic inquiry and recognizes the fundamental rights of marginalized people to ask, investigate, dissent and demand what could be (Torre, 2005, as cited in Fine, 2007). CBPAR provokes among community members a critical analysis of “what has been” and direct imagination towards “what could be” (Freire, 1995). CBPAR empowers people to take control of economic and political forces that shape lives through knowledge sharing, critical thinking, dialogue and action. The Researcher’s Role in CBPAR The role of a researcher in CBPAR varies through the different phases of research (see Table 4.1 below for a summary). In the beginning phase, the researcher plays the role of an organizer by directing community’s attention to their problem, organizing them to get together for a meeting to discuss the issue. At the meeting, the researcher provides necessary information pertaining to the issue that the community may require and motivates people to undertake a systematic study and action. This is done by identifying community members who might be interested in participating in research. From then on, the researcher brings forward his/her research expertise and receives inputs from community members to develop a research design that would be feasible, culturally sensitive / appropriate in the context of the community.

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Research Approaches Used in CBPAR ● Depending on the nature of the issue selected for research and the action that is planned, CBPAR could use a quantitative, qualitative or mixed-methods approach to research. ● most times, CBPAR uses qualitative research methodology, as social workers use CBPAR to bring forward issues that communities might be grappling with and the voices of marginalized populations affected by those issues. Benefits of CBPAR Research done using the CBPAR framework has been critiqued as weak in validity and reliability. However, in addition to Habermas’s and Held’s (in Park, 1993) response to the critique, other scholars have also challenged this critique. Below is a list of some of the benefits of CBPAR: ● Validity of data depends on people’s empathy and understanding the intent of the research question. In quantitative research this is understood as the face validity . According to Faulkner and Faulkner (2019), “Face validity refers to whether a measure seems to make sense (be valid) at a glance” (p. 94). ● CBPAR engages the community in the entire process of research, wherein usually people willingly share the needed information pertaining to the research issue. This is equivalent to the concept of construct validity . Faulkner and Faulkner (2019) define construct validity as “the extent to which the item of an instrument accurately sample a construct, A construct is the concept or the characteristic that an instrument is designed to measure” (p. 96). ● CBPAR allows for using different methods to triangulate findings of research, which is considered to enhance validity or rigour (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998).

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● Engagement of community members in CBPAR produces interactive knowledge and builds communal relations that are characterized by empathy and connectedness. ● PAR leads to critical knowledge or catalytic validity that empowers community members to overcome obstacles to oppression (Lather, 1986). Misconceptions of CBPAR One of the misconceptions of CBPAR is that the process of collaboration neutralizes the power differential that may exist between the researcher and community members. However, Rutman et al. (2005) have demonstrated ways in which power was operated between the team of researchers and community members who were hired on the team. Hence, it is important to acknowledge the existence of power and, through critical reflexivity, address issues of power as they arise in the context of research. Challenges in Conducting CBPAR Addressing Issues of Racism in CBPAR Chavez et al (2008) have drawn attention to following ways in which issues of racism, power, cultural difference and white privilege can be addressed while undertaking PAR: ● Acknowledge historical and local mechanisms of oppressions ● Use of unconventional forms of research ● Instead of deficit theorizing, focus on community resources and strengths Addressing Repressive Power and Recognizing Productive Power in CBPAR The following are ways to address power in CBPAR: ● Recognizing the power of communities to resist oppressive power structures ● Recognizing the power of the community to theorize from their lived experience (epistemic privilege) ● Establishing trusting relations to get access to hidden transcripts ● Attending to power dynamics ● Who speaks and who remains silent? ● How do people react to those who speak? ● Allowing community members to take leadership, share information Addressing Cultural Differences in CBPAR The following are ways to address cultural differences in CBPAR: ● Data collection instruments to focus on the deeper meaning of cultural constructs ● Focus on the local relevance and attend to social, economic, and cultural conditions that influence the issue

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● Disseminate findings to the community in culturally appropriate ways Addressing White Privilege in CBPAR To address white privilege in CBPAR, it is important to demonstrate cultural humility — acknowledging that no one can ever be “competent” in another’s culture. “Cultural humility incorporates a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation and self-critique, to redressing the power imbalances in … and to developing mutually beneficial and non-paternalistic and advocacy partnerships with communities …” (Tervalon & Murray-Gracia, 1998, p. 117). The Politics of Program Evaluation someone inside or outside the organization/program being evaluated. An “insider” has inside knowledge about the organization/program, which can be useful in developing the evaluation design and/or making program staff and service users more comfortable to participate in the evaluation process. However, as an insider, the evaluation process itself might be questioned as being biased, given the potential conflict of interest between protecting the organization/program and being objective in the evaluation. An “outsider” does not have the inside connections but is not usually questioned in terms of bias/conflict of interest in the evaluation process. When doing an evaluation, a question of what goals and outcomes are being measured arises. Another question that arises is that of balancing effectiveness and efficiency – and which is most valued by whomever is seeking the evaluation. Planning an Evaluation When planning an evaluation, several considerations come into play. ● Be clear on what you are evaluating ● What do you hope to accomplish with the evaluation? ● Who and what will you have access to, and how will you have access? ● Timelines for completing evaluation ● Expectations of others for the evaluation purpose and results ● How will you and others manage positive/negative results from the evaluation? Types of Program Evaluation: Part I The types of program evaluation vary according to when we are evaluating within the life cycle of the program and what specific aspects of the program we are evaluating. Faulkner and Faulkner (2019) focus on process and outcome evaluations Formative evaluations are usually done early in the implementation process of a program, and often are used for new/pilot programs as well as on an ongoing basis for program modification. Summative evaluations are usually done at the end of a program or its cycle, and often are used to help determine if the program should continue, change, or discontinue. Types of Program Evaluation: Part II

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Faulkner and Faulkner (2019) note two types of evaluations: process evaluations and outcome evaluations. A process evaluation often is initiated by the agency delivering the program. It begins with a baseline for specific factors being evaluated and usually examines the functioning of the program and progress made within the program. An outcome evaluation usually is requested by a funder or external organization (such as government, umbrella agency, regulator). It usually examines the effectiveness of a program and is a mix of evidence and accountability. Sometimes the evaluation tools/processes are determined by the funder/external organization rather than being developed by the agency/program being evaluated. Faulkner and Faulkner (2019)- The three elements of process evaluation : (a) construct a program description, (b) monitor a program, and (c) assess quality of services provided in the program. Writing the Evaluation Report Writing a report is often the last step of an evaluation process. What is written in the report will vary based on the following factors: ● What is the purpose of the evaluation? ● What is the purpose of the report? ● Who is your audience? ● What might the various outcomes be, based on the different audiences reading your report(s)? It is important to be clear, accurate, and consistent in the report. Evaluations for Program Planning: Needs Assessment Evaluations also can be used to assess new/shifting needs in a client group, community, organization, and so on. A needs assessment requires us to identify the social problem, assess the breadth and depth of the problem, determine the target group(s) affected by the social problem, and then assess the target group’s needs relevant to the social problem. Part of the needs assessment includes asking: ● Is a program needed? ● What kind of program will meet the target group’s need? ● Will the program alleviate the specific social problem? Anti-oppression Issues in Evaluation There are many issues we need to pause and consider in terms of program evaluation from an anti-oppression perspective. Defining and measuring outcomes: How a variable is defined and measured can be problematic, notably when it reproduces discriminatory stereotypes about a community. The same issues apply in terms of how an outcome is defined and measured.

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When doing a needs assessment, we have to consider whose needs are prioritized. For example, how do we navigate differences in needs across various community members? Comparisons and standardization also are issues that arise in evaluation. From an anti-oppressive perspective, we’re concerned about how standardization ignores unique lived experiences, as does comparisons to a common experience, which gets constructed as what is normal. WEEK SIX Process and Steps of Qualitative Research The process of qualitative research includes the following steps: 1. Reviewing the literature 2. Developing a conceptual and/or theoretical framework 3. Formulating research questions 4. Developing research design 1. Deciding on time orientation 2. Deciding on approach(es) of inquiry 3. Deciding on sources of information 4. Deciding on sampling strategies 5. Deciding on recruitment and retention of community members/participants 6. Deciding on data collection methods The difference between the process of quantitative and qualitative research is that the process is linear in the case of quantitative research, whereas the process is recursive in the case of qualitative research. Review of Literature The purpose of literature review is to understand what is known and not known about the research issue. Literature review also enables us to understand how the knowledge has been produced—an understanding of the methodology used by previous researchers for obtaining knowledge. A critical examination could also reveal, who has been included and/or excluded from knowledge production (source of knowledge). All of the above information helps us to understand the strengths and limitations of the existing knowledge so we can situate the proposed research study within the limitations of the aforementioned existing knowledge. Developing a Conceptual and/or Theoretical Framework Theoretical Framework “A theoretical framework is the application of a theory, or a set of concepts drawn from one and the same theory, to offer an explanation of an event, or shed some light on a particular phenomenon or research problem” (Imenda, 2014, p. 189). For example: Feminist theory, critical race theory, etc.

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While most quantitative researchers test an existing theory in their research, not all qualitative research is grounded on a theory. In fact, grounded theory research aims at developing a theory from data. Conceptual Framework “A conceptual framework is an end result of bringing together a number of related concepts to explain … the phenomenon of interest – or simply, of a research problem” (Imenda*, 2014, p. 189). Often, researchers work with more than one concept and selectively choose concepts from literature/various theories that are relevant in the context of their research. In such situations, the term used is conceptual framework . Theoretical and conceptual frameworks play a very important role in research. In the context of qualitative research, they guide the direction of the study. These frameworks are generally invoked during literature review, lightly applied during data analysis, and are revisited during interpretation of findings. Formulating Research Questions Research questions should provide the direction to the study and should align with the approach of inquiry. Researchers could also incorporate questions related to theoretical/conceptual frameworks. Developing Research Design The research design is recursive, flexible, often weaving back and forth between research questions, data collection and analysis. Also, at this stage, a researcher lists the various tasks involved with timelines. Let us look at each of these tasks in some detail. Decision on Time Orientation The researcher decides on the time orientation of the study, i.e., whether the study will be cross- sectional or longitudinal. Longitudinal studies are useful for studying processes of change in an organization/community. Decision on Approach(es) of Inquiry Qualitative researchers often combine more than one approach of qualitative inquiry, while still maintaining one of the approaches as the core or central one to the study and the other(s) as subsidiary.The mixing could happen at the approach level, data collection or at data analysis level. A researcher has to decide on what stage the mixing is going to take place. Decision on Sources of Information There are two sources from where a researcher can gather information. Primary sources or people, and secondary sources, which in qualitative research could be written materials such as annual reports, letters, photographs, recorded documentaries on events, etc. A qualitative

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researcher could combine both these sources of information to get a holistic picture of an individual participant, community or an organization. Decision on Recruitment and Retention of Members A qualitative researcher also has to think creatively about recruiting their participants or community members. Our research generally centres on issues of marginalized communities/members who may be living in isolation, who may not have adequate physical, material, and other resources to access social services/programs, who may not want others in the community to know about their personal challenges/identity. These situations often prevent community members from engaging in our research study. Hence, it is very important for a researcher to know about their potential research participants and develop a plan of recruitment based on the information they have. Often, researchers also have to think of retaining the interest of research participants or community members in the research. This is critical in situations where it is community-based research, and implementing the research project and undertaking action on research findings is likely to take a long time. A good strategy of retaining interest is usually based on offering what is relevant for research participants (individuals or community members). Decision on Data Collection Methods There are a number of methods of data collection, and a qualitative research study can use a combination of data collection methods. Selection of data collection methods is based on a number of different factors: ● Whether the data to be collected is from primary, secondary or a combination of both sources of information ● The data collection method that would be most appropriate for research participants ● The method of data collection that would provide rich, thick descriptive information about the research issue ● The nature of the research issue and the method of data collection that has the potential to deal with the harmful impacts of oppression on research participants Generally, data pertaining to primary sources of information could be gathered through interviews, focus groups, community forums and observation. Whereas, data pertaining to secondary sources could be collected from various documents such as agency reports. Research studies can use a combination of methods of data collection in the context of a research project Anti-Oppressive Perspective in Research Design Development Being Aware of Researcher-Participant Identity Identity factors such as race, ethnicity, age, gender of the researcher and participants do affectresearch in a major way. However, even with all of these factors considered, a researcher might differ from research participants or community members in terms of privileges/oppressions they might experience. Hence, it is important for a researcher to recognize

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their positionality/location in relation to their research participants, and the implications on their research. Positionality, Critical Reflexivity and Representation Positionality is about how we situate ourselves as researchers with reference to the transformative agenda. As Soyni Madison (2012) states, “Positionality is vital because it forces us to acknowledge our power, privilege and biases … In this way we take ethical responsibility for our own subjectivity, and political perspective…” (pp.7–8). According to Hunter (2002), “Critical reflexivity entails addressing issues of positionality, identity, and confronting the power dynamics between the researcher and the researched” (p. 132). Representation is about ethics of accountability and responsibility towards our communities. “Representation has consequences: How people are represented is how they are treated.” (Hull, in Soyni Madison, 2012, p. 4) Conducting a Collaborative Research Process Anti-oppressive research design incorporates a discussion on the process of working with and engaging research participants/community members in the development of the entire research design. As insiders and people who have experienced the research issue, they have wisdom and insight that we may lack as outside researchers. Tapping Existing Capacities and Training Individuals In the case of community-based research, a critical aspect of research design development is to also assess the existing capacities of your community and engage individuals with varied capacities in various stages of research. A researcher could also train individuals wherever there is a possibility for doing so. WEEK SEVEN Sampling In qualitative research, we use only non-probability sampling strategies, as the purpose of sampling is not to generalize findings to the population from which the sample has been selected, but to obtain a rich description and insight into the experiences of people about a phenomenon. It is common for researchers to use multiple sampling techniques in a single research study. Determining Sample Size Besides considering sampling technique, it is also important to decide on sample size. Always, the size of the sample has to be appropriate to the approach of inquiry. In addition, there are certain points to be remembered while deciding on sampling size:

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● Having a dual focus: retaining a small sample size and focus on gathering rich data ● Using a larger sample size in the case of diversity and small sample size in situations where the sample is homogenous or there is no diversity ● Using a smaller number of in-depth interviews rather than a large number of interviews. However, a larger sample is preferred in situations where there is no possibility of conducting more than one interview ● Using a larger sample if funds are available Often, qualitative researchers are called upon to use innovative techniques for recruiting and retaining participants. Often, the strategy of recruitment is based on the target group. Recruitment is generally done through a social service organization or through direct contact with the community (in cases where the researcher has good contact with the community). The researcher can also use community leaders for getting to people. However, going through leaders could also be detrimental in that leaders could also be gatekeepers, and caution needs to be exercised before approaching them. Data Collection Methods in Qualitative and Indigenous Research There are different methods of data collection in qualitative research. They are: ● Interviews ● Focus groups ● Community forums ● Observations ● Use of documents Suitability of Approach of Inquiry with Method(s) of Data Collection It has been observed that certain methods of data collection align well with certain approaches of inquiry as seen from Table 7.1 below:

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Types of Qualitative Interviews In keeping with the purpose of qualitative interviews, i.e., to obtain a rich and thick description of a phenomenon, interview questions are generally open-ended. They allow for participants to express their own perspectives in their own words. Below, we’ll go through different types of qualitative interviews for a better understanding of what is involved in each. The Informal Field Interview This type of interview is unplanned/spontaneous in nature. It is similar to a conversation with a purpose, and the purpose in this context is to gather data. There are no predetermined questions, but the researcher tries to guide the conversation to elicit relevant information that can be obtained from the person. In-Depth Interview In-depth interviews are dialogic and could be seen along a continuum outlined below: ● Interviews with least interruptions and fewest questions ● Interviews with a list of areas to be covered in the interview ● Semi structured interviews: the same set of open-ended questions are asked of all participants Elite and Expert and/or Key Informant Interview (KII) This interview is also known as “studying up” (Nader, 1969). KIIs provide a top-down perspective of experts or people in position of authority. Questions are tailored and planned ahead. Linked Interviews These interviews are conducted with people who are related. These interviews are conducted sequentially with members, first individually and then through joint interviews. nterviewing Children and Other Vulnerable Populations It is important to exercise caution not to engage in coercion when interviewing children and others from vulnerable populations. As a researcher, it is important to be aware of stereotypical assumptions about individuals and make efforts to be inclusive. Interviews with children can be done using video, photography, arts, play and observation. Photo Voice (PV) and Photo Elicitation Interviews (PEI) Both these methods use visual images. While PV is used in a community context such as collecting data for a PAR or community-based research study, PEI is used in case of data collection from individuals. PEI is used for eliciting thoughts, memories and feelings from participants. Also, phones are used for recording and taking pictures.

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Mapping Mapping can be used as a source of visual data. It allows identification of areas of high activity/concentration as well as their absence. As researchers, we are advised to use participatory mapping processes. There is caution against use of information for surveillance. Use of Internet, Skype, Chat Rooms Chat rooms allow anonymity and open up the possibility of gathering information on sensitive topics. They also enable us to address barriers of distance by facilitating data collection from people located anywhere. However, the limitation is that the environment has to be accessible by computers. A point of caution is that the information gathered is decontextualized, a very important part of the marker of qualitative research. Conducting Qualitative Interviews The researcher starts and concludes the interview, keeping in mind basic anti-oppression principles of establishing rapport with participants and respecting the experience and wisdom of participants. Instead of acting as an expert, the researcher is reflexive, shares power, and demonstrates openness as a learner. The researcher treats the data shared by participants as a gift and holds themselves as accountable to the participants. The researcher also plays the role of an enabler—enabler of information/ resources/supports needed by participants. Current Debates around Realism and Authenticity of Data Collected through Interviews ● Padgett presents an interesting debate by scholars on varying perspectives on the data collected from interviews. While appreciating the various viewpoints expressed by scholars it is important to also bring in anti-oppression lens on the issue. ● Within anti-oppression perspective it is believed that researchers have a strong connection with participants through prior working relationship and hence there is mutual trust existing between them. However, the situation could get further complicated when you introduce the lens of race in the context of data collection. ● Deliovsky (module 8) and Maiter & Joseph (module 9), data collection is greatly influenced by issues of race, internalized racism / inferiorization, and trust / safety participants might feel with researchers. In such situations researchers may have to critically review the authenticity of data that is shared with them. Common Problems while Interviewing and Ways of Mitigating Padgett presents common problems researchers might experience while interviewing. Researchers often have to strike a balance between the desire to control the interview and not interrupting the participant. This could be avoided by planning, if possible, two interviews so that the researcher is able to get information on "must ask" questions that were not answered in the first round. Wherever conducting two interviews with participants is not possible, researchers could build in extra time for interviews - plan for a two hours interview when the actual interview might be just for one and half hours. Second, often researchers come across participants who might not provide a rich narrative. In such situations, researchers have often used additional participants to obtain the data. Also, it is important to pay attention to issues of

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time, exhaustion, language that the participant is comfortable with speaking, while conducting interviews. Probes and Prompts Used in Qualitative Interviews The researcher uses the following probes and prompts while conducting a qualitative interview: ● Go deeper (“Can you tell me more about…?”) ● Go back (“Earlier, you mentioned ___, please tell me…”) ● Clarify (“And were you homeless when you were arrested?”) ● Steer (“That’s very interesting, but can we return to…?”) ● Contrast (“How would you compare your experiences in foster care with living with your adoptive family?”) ● The preferred number of interviews is more than one—the first one being an open interview and the last one being more structured, with a focus on finding responses to gaps in information or information that is needed but was not collected The researcher maintains face sheets and an observation log of all interviews. Tools of Data Collection for Qualitative Interviews Interview Guide An interview guide is a useful tool for researchers to use in data collection for qualitative research. The interview guide lists topics and issues to be covered in the interview, but allows the interviewer to adapt the sequencing and wording to each particular interview situation. While this tool provides flexibility to the researcher to go with the flow of conversation, it also assures that the researcher covers all topics listed in the guide. Semi-Structured Schedule ● A semi-structured interview schedule lists all questions in a sequence and the interviewer asks these questions in the way and in the order they are written. ● Both tools of data collection are developed in keeping with objectives/areas relevant to the research. WEEK EIGHT Data Collection Methods in Qualitative and Indigenous Research The other methods of data collection used by qualitative researchers are: ● Focus groups ● Community forums ● Observations ● Use of documents

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Indigenous approaches of inquiry use different methods of data collection. The methods of data collection that are commonly used by Indigenous researchers are: ● Sharing circles ● Oral history ● Storytelling ● Symbol-based methods of reflection Focus Groups According to Kruger and Casey, focus groups are conducted to obtain general background information about a topic and stimulate new ideas. Focus groups are also conducted to identify potential problems with new services/programs and gaining perspectives about a service/program. From anti-oppression perspective, focus groups provide an opportunity for participants to develop networks and solidarity among themselves. When participants listen to others’ stories, they realize that they are not the only one who experiences such an issue. With this realization, participants’ personal plights get converted to a social problem that needs to be addressed. Hence, it also reduces their own shame and guilt associated with their problem. Conducting focus groups Below are some of the preferred things to consider when conducting focus groups for your qualitative research: ● Size: 3 to 15 ● Participants: From similar backgrounds, but they should not know each other; there should not be any power-based relations existing between participants ● Structure: Should be co-facilitated by two people along with a note-taker/recorder ● Organization: ○ Timing: Should be convenient to all participants ○ Language: Preferred by members; translation supports to be available ○ Food: Should be culturally appropriate ○ Child care: should be made available ● ● Questions: Four or five open-ended questions where every participant has an opportunity to participate. Questions should also be such that they lead to good discussion ● Timing: Not for more than two to two and a half hours ● Address challenges: The facilitator should be skilled in managing group dynamics ● Ethical issue—confidentiality and privacy: Although members sign an informed consent form that they will not share whatever personal information is shared by individuals in the focus group to anyone, there is no guarantee that individual members will maintain these ethics. Community Forums

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Community forums are used most often in PAR. The purpose of having community forums is to include a large number of community members to discuss issues that impact them and plan for community-based research and action. Prior to organizing a community forum, the researcher gets fairly well acquainted with the community and its dynamics, visits the community, meets with a few key individuals in the community, and understands the community’s perspective about the research issue. If the issue is not relevant to the community, the researcher reviews the plan—either selects another issue or selects another community that is affected by the issue the researcher is interested in. Once these tasks are completed, the researcher invites the community for a formal discussion on the issue (of the type discussed in PAR) and follows the process discussed in PAR. The size of a community forum is more than focus groups (i.e., greater than three to fifteen participants). Observation Observation as a method is used commonly as a supplement with individual interview. The researcher develops an observation guide and lists what is to be observed. When what is observed does not concur with what is being shared by the participant, Padgett advises not to challenge the participant. In keeping with anti-oppression practice, as a researcher, share and confirm your observation with the participant. Use of Documents Program records such as service users’ files, summary data on rates of, for example, participation, completion or drop-out could be considered as documents. Researchers also could use agency documents such as minutes of meetings, mission statements, and/or policy documents/manuals as sources of information. Use of Archival Data This method is used as supplementary material due to its potential limitation of depth. This method includes use of diaries, letters, personal artwork, blog, listservs, and chat room conversations. The data from these sources are analyzed in the same way as hard-copy documents. Indigenous Methods of Data Collection Indigenous methods of data collection are used to promote self-determination, resistance, recovery, renewal and healing from colonization and colonial research processes. Indigenous methods are founded in Indigenous worldviews regarding production and sharing of knowledge. Indigenous methods follow communities’ cultural protocols, such as the method proposed by Lavallee (2008). Features of Anti-Oppressive Data Collection Methods The following are some of the key features of anti-oppressive ways of data collection to be considered in qualitative research:

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● Taking a stance with people, providing emotional rapport ● Relationship building ● Adhering to inclusion, diversity and various intersections ● Engaging in capacity development of community members to undertake data collection ● Addressing language barriers in order to facilitate collection of rich data ● Using culturally appropriate methods of data collection and dissemination of findings ● Addressing issues of racism and whiteness as sites of power between the researcher and participants during data collection stage. These dynamics require the researcher to be reflexive and understand how the larger social, political and historical context of whiteness informs the researcher-participant relationship (Deliovsky, 2017). PRACTICE QUIZ Q’s & A’s: 1) Community-based participatory research is a: Perspective/lens/framework/orientation that guides research 2) Rigour in the context of participatory action research involves: Balancing between trustworthiness and relevance of research 3) The application of a theory or a set of concepts drawn from a single theory to offer an explanation of a phenomenon is known as: Theoretical framework 4) Qualitative literature reviews do which of the following? A. Critically evaluate previous research B. Situate the proposed study C. Offer an opportunity for applying theoretical lenses D. All of the above 5) Purposive sampling involves: Selecting participants based on their ability to provide the needed information 6) Anti-oppression research design incorporates a discussion on the process of engagement with participants, during the development of research design. True 7) The purpose of non-probability sampling is to generalize the findings of research to the population from where the sample was drawn. False

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8) What is used as a method of data collection for narrative inquiry? Individual interviews 9) An interview guide offers: A study’s major areas 10) While conducting focus groups, a researcher also collects some quantitative data by administering a scale to all participants. This design is: Concurrent 11) According to Lavallée, sharing circles have similarities with focus groups but differ because they: Are a healing method

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SWP 638 NOTES

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