ATH-210 Final

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For the purpose of scraping hardened gum off the surface of branches and trunks, the incisors, and canines of certain strepsirrhine species are located forward in the jaw. The morphology and dimensions of molars are indicative of food preferences (Boyd et al., 2020a, pp. 118–123). Plesiopithecus, Darwinius, Adapidae, Lemurs, and Adapiformes are the members of the strepsirrhine family. Large, noticeable incisors are used by primates who mostly eat gum to chisel holes through the bark of trees. For instance, although maintaining certain fundamental characteristics like their typically unspecialized molars, apes also share some derived characteristics like larger brains, palates, and broader noses (Boyd et al., 2020a, pp. 118–123). The family Catarrhineae includes mandrills, semnopithecus, cercopithecinae, and baboons. Each of them has pronounced cusps on the anterior and posterior sides, forming two parallel ridges. The apes' lower molar cusps form a Y-shaped pattern of ridges that is sideways twisted (Boyd et al., 2020a, pp. 118–123). The strong enamel on the molars of primates that consume hard seeds and nuts allows them to endure the intense chewing pressure needed to break down these items (Boyd et al., 2020a, pp. 118–123). Prosimians like African bush babies and pottos, Madagascar's lemurs, and Southeast Asian lorises are classified as strepsirrhines, or wet-nosed monkeys. Haplorrhines are a group of dry-nosed monkeys that include tarsiers and simians. Strepsirrhines having smaller bodies and brains than anthropoids, are more likely to be nocturnal, and have larger olfactory centers in their brains. Haplorrhines, with a few notable exceptions, are primarily nocturnal animals that rely on vision. The fact that strepsirrhines have the enzymes to produce vitamin C whereas haplorrhines must get it from food is another important difference between the two species. ( Biology 2e, Biological Diversity, Vertebrates, the Evolution of Primates , n.d.). Considerable evidence of the evolutionary break between humans, monkeys, and apes may be found in the fossil record. Here are a few noteworthy instances:

Proconsul: This genus of extinct monkeys existed between 23 and 5 million years ago. Proconsul is thought to have been an ancestor of both monkeys and apes. Its skeletal structure has a variety of characteristics, some shared by contemporary apes and others with monkeys (Hopewood, 1933). Australopithecus: The evolutionary history of this genus of hominins spans 4–2 million years. Both ape- and human-like traits were present in Australopithecus, suggesting a break from the common ape-ape progenitor. The best-known example, "Lucy," stood up like a human yet had an ape-like brain (Dorey, 2021). Homo habilis: The ancestors of modern humans lived between 2.1 and 1.5 million years ago. Homo habilis exhibits traits that are more akin to humans, such as a larger brain and tool use, which may indicate additional ape-to-human evolution (Dorey, 2020). The following fossils highlight the essential distinctions between modern humans, monkeys, and apes: Physical Structure: Proconsul's combination of monkey and ape traits suggests that they shared a common ancestry. Homo habilis and Australopithecus exhibit traits that are increasingly similar to those of humans, such as standing erect and having bigger brains (Dorey, 2020). Behavior: One of the main distinctions between humans and other primates is the use of tools by Homo habilis, which shows more complex behavior and cognitive ability (Dorey, 2020). These extinct species' morphological traits and archeological evidence suggest their behaviors: Proconsul: Most likely ape- and monkey-like, it lived in trees, however it may have moved more

like an ape given that it lacked a tail (Hopewood, 1933). Australopithecus: The capacity for upright gait indicates a shift toward a more terrestrial way of life. Their fingers, however, still have a curvature that suggests they were once in trees (Dorey, 2021). Homo habilis: The employment of tools suggests a more evolved kind of behavior, perhaps involving scavenging and hunting (Dorey, 2020). Recall that as more data is gathered, our knowledge of these species' behaviors changes continuously. Formerly, the majority of experts thought that humans and chimpanzees shared a more recent progenitor. It was with this perspective that they understood the evolution of monkeys' locomotion, or gait patterns. Since they walk on two feet and four hands, all big apes are quadrupedal. However, orangutans carry weight on their palms, whereas gorillas and chimpanzees curl their fingers over their palms and walk on their knuckles. This is referred to as knuckle walking (Boyd et al., 2020b, p. 94). Naturally, humans have two legs and stand erect. Since human hands lack these anatomical characteristics, most scientists concluded that humans did not evolve from a knuckle-walking creature. Knuckle walking necessitates considerable alterations to the structure of the hand. It was commonly believed that since both gorillas and chimpanzees exhibit knuckle walking, this trait originated in their common ancestor. But most scientists now believe that humans and chimpanzees are more closely related than gorillas based on more recent analyses of genetic similarity (Boyd et al., 2020b, p. 94). When determining what information and items to display, various ethical problems arise. It is advisable to display monkey reproductions rather than genuine monkeys, as live primates can pose a slew of issues. Having animals imprisoned to demonstrate similarities between our

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species may have ramifications for museums. If we used original fossils from these primates, they would be quickly damaged and presumably fragile. It is also recommended to employ replicas. Given that the entire museum show is about species that existed millions of years ago, it would make sense to reconstruct what they would have looked like. Create an exhibit that demonstrates how evolution occurred over time, how tools evolved, environments transformed, and physical bodies changed. 1. Australopithecus afarensis ("Lucy") :  Born in Ethiopia in the vicinity of 1974, Lucy is among the most famous of the early hominins. Notable for walking upright, she lived approximately 3.2 million years ago. For the evolution of humans, this is a crucial turning point (Dorey, 2021). 2. Australopithecus sediba:  Dated between 1.78 and 1.95 million years ago, the first specimen was found in Malapa, South Africa. Like Australopithecus africanus in skeletal structure and maybe descended from it (Dorey, 2019). 3. Homo habilis:  The first hominid to use tools is believed to have been Homo habilis, sometimes known as "handy man," who lived between 2.4 and 1.4 million years ago (Dorey, 2020). 4. Homo erectus:  Primitive between 1.9 million and 143,000 years ago, Homo erectus was the first hominid to spread out of Africa and into Eurasia. They also used fire before anyone else did (Smithsonian Institution, 2010). 5. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals):

 About 400,000–40,000 years ago, Neanderthals inhabited Europe and Asia. With certain morphological traits that were well adapted to cold regions, they were the closest extinct relative of modern humans (Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, 2022). The first upright walkers, tool users, departed African first, and ultimately our own species are all represented by these fossils, which mark significant junctures in the evolution of hominins. Along with leading up to our species these fossils show some of the same characteristics from other early hominins which indicate that somewhere down the line our ancestors interbred with similar species which ended up resulting in what we call modern humans today Homo sapiens. 1. Australopithecus afarensis (“Lucy”):  An important source of information about early human evolution is Australopithecus afarensis, often known as "Lucy". Although Lucy was smaller than current people, she had a similar body size and stature. This shows that in the evolutionary history of humans, body size evolved before brain size. Nonetheless, there is no proof that this species exhibits skin color variation (Dorey, 2021). 2. Australopithecus sediba:  It is probably bipedal as well, given its size resemblance to other Australopithecus species. Compared to members of the Homo genus, Australopithecus sediba had longer arms and a smaller brain. Australopithecus africanus, another fossil species discovered in South Africa, is very similar to Australopithecus sediba. Their facial, oral, and cranial traits are comparable (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2024). Probably an offspring of Australopithecus africanus (Dorey, 2019).

3. Homo habilis:  Comparing Homo habilis to Australopithecus, the "handy man" is recognized for having a bigger brain. Similar to contemporary humans, this species exhibits variance in body size. Habilis is derived from a Latin word that means "skillful" or "handy." This species is referred to as "handy man" because stone implements were discovered next to its fossil remains, suggesting that it had mastered the art of shaping stone into tools (Dorey, 2020). But because the fossil record is so incomplete, there is little information available about stature and body type. The species' range of skin tones is likewise unclear (Dorey, 2020). 4. Homo erectus:  Homo erectus shows significant biological variation similar to modern humans. This species had a larger brain size, taller stature, and more similar body shape to modern humans. Homo erectus was also the first hominin to leave Africa, suggesting potential for variation in skin color as an adaptation to different environments (Smithsonian Institution, 2010). 5. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals):  Biologically speaking, Neanderthals and modern humans are very similar. They were typically taller than contemporary humans, with a muscular body form and a huge brain. According to recent genetic research, Neanderthals' skin tone varied from light to dark, much like that of modern people (Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, 2022). Ultimately, even though these extinct species exhibit biological variation, it is not to the same extent as that of living humans. The implication is that Homo sapiens' high level of biological variety is a relatively new phenomenon in the history of human evolution.

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Fossils are available to museums through a number of sources, such as: University campuses or other research facilities frequently carry out archaeological dig sites. To acquire fossils, museums might work with these organizations. Individual collectors : There are people who own legitimately acquired fossils that they are prepared to part with or offer for purchase to a museum. Dealers of fossils: Some companies are dedicated to selling fossils. The legal and ethical sources of these sellers' fossils must be confirmed by museums, nevertheless. It is imperative in every situation that the fossils were acquired lawfully, adhering to national laws and regulations. It could be required to provide compensation, particularly when working with fossil dealers or individual collectors. Several variables determine whether to use a cast replica or the actual fossil: Preservation: Since real fossils are frequently delicate, exposure to light, moisture, and touch can harm them. In these circumstances, a cast copy might be better. Authenticity: Seeing actual fossils is often preferred by tourists. However, a copy can be used if the original fossil is too costly or delicate, as long as it is clearly marked as such. Availability: A replica may be the sole choice in certain situations if the original fossil is unavailable. Although they can be a useful tool, replicas have certain drawbacks: Visitors may believe that a replica isn't as precious or fascinating as the original fossil due to perceptions of worth. To guarantee that replicas faithfully depict the genuine fossil, special attention must be taken throughout their creation.

A museum's decision regarding how to present and preserve the artifact must consider: Setting : To keep the fossil from being damaged, the room and display case need to have regulated humidity and temperature. Security: Priceless fossils need to be shielded from theft and damage. Interpretation: Details regarding the fossil, including its age, species, and significance, should be included in the exhibit. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacteria that causes tuberculosis. Although it can damage other organs as well, it mainly affects the lungs. There is a complicated link between human genetic variation and tuberculosis. Human susceptibility to tuberculosis can be influenced by specific genetic variants. To illustrate, there are several variations of the NRAMP1 gene that can either enhance or decrease an individual's vulnerability to tuberculosis or interfere with the immunological response to the disease (Bellamy et al., 1998). Numerous variables may contribute to greater prevalence of tuberculosis in some communities or cultures. Socioeconomic circumstances, healthcare accessibility, and cultural customs are a few examples. For example, the transmission of tuberculosis is more likely in societies where close contact is widespread, such as in crowded living situations (Bennett, 2002). Furthermore, a delayed diagnosis and course of treatment may contribute to greater prevalence of tuberculosis in groups with inadequate access to healthcare. The diversity of human genetics linked to tuberculosis can also be influenced by the environment. For example, populations residing in high-pollution areas might have evolved genetic adaptations that make them more vulnerable to respiratory illnesses like tuberculosis (Tao et al., 2023). Similarly, there might be more genetic variation in immune system genes in

areas where infectious diseases are common, which could affect a person's vulnerability to tuberculosis. Employing tuberculosis in a museum display may give rise to moral dilemmas. For example, it might stigmatize groups of people who have high incidences of tuberculosis. The application of cultural relativism can help to lessen these effects. This method places more emphasis on comprehending a culture from its own viewpoint than on evaluating it in accordance with the norms of another culture. The display can educate visitors about tuberculosis without perpetuating prejudices or stigmatizing certain populations by presenting facts about the disease in a culturally appropriate manner. According to anthropologists, race is a social construct—that is, it is a concept that has been formed and molded by society rather than a biological or genetic reality. People are categorized using this system according to their physical attributes, such as their skin tone, hair type, and facial features. Significant genetic differences between human populations do not, however, correspond with these physical disparities. Inferring that "there is no such thing as race" or that "race isn't real" is not what the idea that there are separate biological human races is not a genuine scientific concept intends to convey (Santangelo, n.d.). Although race is a real notion, it is not derived from biology or science; rather, it is based on social and cultural definitions. Thus, racial classifications like "black" and "white" are just as real as those for "American" and "African American." Though not biological, a lot of things in the world are real. Race, thus, reflects socially constructed conceptions subjectively defined by cultures to represent ideas of division that are seen to be significant, rather than biological qualities. In an attempt to highlight their cultural and arbitrary origins, some sociologists and anthropologists now refer to

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them as social races. The best way to conceptualize race is as a socio-historical construct (Santangelo, n.d.). Examples from today's world show how race is shaped by social and cultural factors, such as racial profiling, and census classifications. Individuals are singled out or under suspicion due to their presumed race or ethnicity, a process known as "racial profiling." That demonstrates rather clearly how racial classifications are created and used in society. Rather than representing biological facts, the racial categories employed in national censuses reflect society views on race that fluctuate over time and across national boundaries is the process known as census classification. Although the terms race and ethnicity are frequently used synonymously, they have distinct meanings: People are categorized by race, a social construct, according to their physical attributes. Cultural elements such as nationality, ancestry, language, and regional culture are referred to as ethnicity. Because ethnicity recognizes the cultural and social impacts on human populations rather than depending on the problematic idea of race, biological anthropologists prefer to utilize ethnicity over race. The following are some instances from biological anthropology and human biology that support the notion that race is a social construct: Different phenotypes can be introduced in an organism through genetic differences that change gene activity or protein function. Natural selection refers to the mechanism by which genetic variation is more likely to be passed down to the following generation if the characteristic is favorable and aids in the individual's survival and reproduction (MedlinePlus, 2021). Research refutes the notion that races are discrete genetic categories, demonstrating that

there is greater genetic variability within racial groups than between them. This is referred to as Genetic Variation or Genetic Variability. The idea of race is not consistent with the migration and evolutionary trends of humans. Due to our high levels of migration, genetic mixing has historically been the norm rather than the exception for humans. Public interest in human evolution is sometimes piqued for more sinister reasons. The acknowledgement of human diversity is fundamental to research on human origins. An integral aspect of the study of human evolution is the examination of the biological backgrounds and interrelationships among human populations, sometimes referred to as "race." Gaining an understanding of the origins of humanity entails understanding the basis, evolution, and dynamics of "the races" within humans (Caspari & Wolpoff, n.d.). The fact that "Different cultures have different moral codes" has been used by numerous philosophers as the foundation for their theories on morality. They argue that the concept of an ethical universal truth is a myth. All that exists are the customs of many communities. It is impossible to call these customs "correct" or "incorrect," as that would imply that we have our own unique moral code by which they must be evaluated. However, no such norm exists independently; all standards are culturally specific (Rachels, 1999). The theory of "cultural relativism" holds that an individual's actions and views should be interpreted within the framework of their own culture. For biological anthropologists researching race, this viewpoint is essential because it helps them comprehend how various communities define and interpret the idea of race. Anthropologists can avoid ethnocentrism—the practice of judging other cultures by the norms of one's own culture—by adopting a cultural relativist viewpoint. This is especially crucial when researching race because it dispels and challenges racial preconceptions and stereotypes.

References Bellamy, R., Ruwende, C., Corrah, T., McAdam, K. P., Whittle, H. C., & Hill, A. V. (1998). Variations in the NRAMP1 gene and susceptibility to tuberculosis in West Africans. The New England Journal of Medicine , 338 (10), 640–644. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199803053381002 Bennett, S. (2002). Investigation of Environmental and Host-related Risk Factors for Tuberculosis in Africa. II. Investigation of Host Genetic Factors. American Journal of Epidemiology , 155 (11), 1074–1079. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/155.11.1074 Biology 2e, Biological Diversity, Vertebrates, The Evolution of Primates . (n.d.). OpenEd CUNY. Retrieved January 27, 2024, from https://opened.cuny.edu/courseware/lesson/759/student/?section=8 Boyd, R., Silk, J. B., & W.W. Norton & Company. (2020a). How humans evolved (9th ed., pp. 118–123). W.W. Norton & Company. Boyd, R., Silk, J. B., & W.W. Norton & Company. (2020b). How humans evolved (9th ed., p. 94). W.W. Norton & Company. Caspari, R., & Wolpoff, M. (n.d.). Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning . Deepblue.lib.umich.edu. Retrieved February 11, 2024, from https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/55281/index.html? sequence=10&isAllowed=y Dorey, F. (2019, December 13). Australopithecus sediba . The Australian Museum. https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/australopithecus-sediba/ Dorey, F. (2020, October 2). Homo habilis . The Australian Museum. https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-habilis/

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Dorey, F. (2021, May 14). Australopithecus afarensis . The Australian Museum. https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/australopithecus-afarensis/ Hopewood, A. (1933). Proconsul . Www.prehistoric-Wildlife.com. https://www.prehistoric- wildlife.com/species/p/proconsul.html MedlinePlus. (2021, August 5). How are gene variants involved in evolution?: MedlinePlus Genetics . Medlineplus.gov. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/mutationsanddisorders/evolution/ #:~:text=Genetic%20variations%20that%20alter%20gene Rachels, J. (1999). The Challenge of Cultural Relativism . Uca.edu. https://faculty.uca.edu/rnovy/Rachels--Cultural%20Relativism.htm Santangelo, A. M. (n.d.). Race and Ethnicity. Pressbooks.cuny.edu . Retrieved February 11, 2024, from https://pressbooks.cuny.edu/discoveringculturalanthropology/chapter/chapter-9/ Smithsonian Institution. (2010, February 14). Homo erectus . The Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Program. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-erectus Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. (2024, January 3). Australopithecus sediba | The Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Program . Humanorigins.si.edu. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus- sediba#:~:text=Australopithecus%20sediba%20bears%20a%20strong Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History. (2022, July 1). Homo neanderthalensis . The Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Program. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis

Tao, B., Li, Z., Wang, Y., Wu, J., Shi, X., Shi, J., Liu, Q., & Wang, J. (2023). Environment pollutants exposure affects the endogenous activation of within-host Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Environmental Research , 227 , 115695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.115695

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