AN100 Neoliberalism quiz

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Apr 3, 2024

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Readings/Videos ● Chapter 8: Globalization, Neoliberalism, and the Nation-State in Sociocultural Anthropology: A Problem-Based Approach ● Pros and Cons of Neoliberalism. (2:59 minutes) ● The term was popularized in the 80s by ronald regan, margerate thatture and milton freedman ● ● The “Cost” of Globalization (4:12 minutes) ● Iphone 147 steps ● Foxconn 1.78cents/hour ● Indigenous Americans and Globalization I World History Project. (4:28 minutes) ● 1903 ● Globalization and Culture (6:28 minutes) Learning Outcomes By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Define the function and evolution of nation-states. 2. Clarify the distinction between ‘nation’ and ‘nation-states”. 3. Unpack the term “globalization” 4. Explain the relationship between globalization, colonialism and neocolonialism. 5. Talk about the potential impact of globalization and colonialism on local cultures. 6. Define neoliberalism. 7. Discuss how the nation building in Canada was inextricably linked to the subjugation of Indigenous peoples and racialized people. Key Terms Globalization

“The intensification of worldwide social relations that link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away, and vice versa (Robbins et al. 2017, 222). Neoliberalism An economic philosophy advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy while promoting rapid economic expansion. Neoliberals argue that the optimal path to well-being involves empowering individual entrepreneurs within a framework characterized by strong property rights, free trade and free market (Robbins et al. 2017, 225). Nation-state Responsible for upholding public order, sustaining armed forces, and gathering revenue in the form of tribute or taxes (Robbins et al. 2017, 227). In this lesson we will argue that neoliberalism and globalization impact everyone’s lives, but in different ways. Before you delve deeper into learning more about these phenomena, we invite you to read an excerpt from Liquidated. An Ethnography of Wall Street written by the American anthropologist Karen Ho, who describes her experience conducting ethnography in several investment banks. We hope that her account will demonstrate that the prioritization of profits over people characterizing neoliberal global capitalism translates to various levels of workers’ exploitation, which, in turn, leads to diminished life quality. The extent to which employees are mistreated depends on the strength of the unions, the state and the labor protection laws. What is particularly interesting about Karen Ho’s work is that it was published shortly after the 2008 economic crisis. During this crisis, major American banks were bailed out by the US government to save them from bankruptcy, despite their significant role in causing the downturn. Consequently, many Americans lost their homes through foreclosures, whereas bank CEOs were paid handsome bonuses in spite of the fact that they contributed to the near collapse of the American financial system.

What goes on inside investment banks, and what might they not want “others” to see? I would argue that for many …. investment bankers, the experience of work is akin to what Jill Andresky Fraser calls the “white-collar sweatshop.” The fact that many investments bankers work, off and on, 110-hour weeks, is often disguised (and alleviated) by their business-class airplane seats and five-star hotel stays. … Louis Walters, a white vice president of Facilities and Building Services at Salomon Smith Barney, vividly describes these work environments. As the spatial planner of an investment bank, Walters helped me to understand the geography of workspace and its relationship to how investment banks view their employees and the work they do. About five years or so ago, we densified the operation. We went from every employee had nothing less than a six to-eight position, which was our work module; then we went to a six-by-six to get more people in less space—part of the cost-control thing. I remember walking down this long row of seats that we had crammed together. Six-by-six is not a lot of room, and low partitioned. …I saw this Princeton mug, class of whatever. And, I was thinking about the sort of psychological process of going through what it takes to get into Princeton today, and the work just to get there, and then, having graduated from there, the sense of accomplishment, being part of the one percent… the best of the best, and here he wound up with a six-by-six module, with only room for your little mug. The mug is a sort of a residual reminder that you are someone special. Along with associates, analysts work the longest hours. If analysts work 110+ hours a week (with four to five all-nighters a month), then a typical analyst’s salary of $50,000 amounts to little more than minimum wage… Another Harvard alumnus, a Goldman Sachs analyst who requested anonymity, declared, “For a year you have no personal life. It’s hard enough to do my laundry.” His worst work week lasted 155 hours, leaving him with just 13 hours to sleep. Many investment bankers candidly informed me that Wall Street deliberately recruits college graduates straight out of the gate…in order to pick the most eager, fresh-faced, driven, young, unattached analysts, so they can be worked to the breaking point. As Sarah Kittery, a vice president at Salomon Smith Barney, casually remarked in passing, “If you’re single, and your

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family lives far away, like California, the better analyst you will be.” She described that although most analysts begin the year with a significant other, “all of a sudden” after a few months, everyone starts finding out that they are all single. My initial year on Wall Street working at Bankers Trust (BT) can certainly be characterized as a global seduction. At the various recruiting events I attended as a potential employee…I was bombarded by proclamations and representations of “the global.” Senior investment bankers spoke endlessly about borderless flows of financial capital and finance becoming increasingly “global” as Wall Street investment banks create sophisticated financial products covering new areas and generating new markets, as they enter and dominate the capital markets of various countries. (J. P. Morgan 1995, centerfold) (Ho 2009, 61-70). Ho’s ethnography very effectively demonstrates how the exploitation of the workforce, which is a typical feature of neoliberal global capitalism, affects all workers including those who appear to be on the top of the socio-economic ladder. This adds nuance to the oversimplified picture in which “only” people in the so-called sweatshop belt , which includes China, South Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, and Bangladesh work in very difficult conditions whereas their equivalents in the Global North do not (Nanda and Warms 2018, 357). Sweatshops are “factories where workers, particularly women and children, are employed for long hours under difficult conditions at low pay” (Nanda and Warms 2018, 358). As we will argue in this lesson, neoliberal global capitalism penetrates everyone’s lives, but its impact varies depending on one’s geographic location and socio-economic position. For example, the Wallstreet bankers who graduated from Harvard might be earning a minimum wage, but the American minimum wage differs from that in Bangladeshi. To put it differently, the American financial analysts might be exploited and sleep deprived, but they still have enough money to put food on the table - something that cannot be said for many workers of the Global South. Thus, the state’s position in the world economic system plays a significant role in mitigating the negative effects of globalization. 1. The state is run by specialists, ________ and civil servants that are working in bureaucratic institutions.

Correct answer: Politicians 2. The state governs its population through the ________ and courts of law. Correct answer: Police 3. In return, the state offers to maintain the _____________, provide social assistance to the ill and the unemployed, and protect people against external attacks (Balzani and Bessnier 2021, 426). Correct answer: Infrastructure 4. Before the eighteenth century, European states were governed by kings and _______ who were perceived as having received the right to rule from God. During that time, their subjects’ lives revolved around villages and kinship groups, and did not necessarily identify strongly with a specific nation. Correct answer: Emperors 5. By the end of the eighteenth century, a new idea emerged: rulers should only rule over “the members of the ________ to which they themselves belonged” (Balzani and Bessnier 2021, 426). This concept implied that an overlap between nation and a state was a desirable goal. Correct answer: Nation 6. To address this challenge the central government of European countries turned their attention toward fostering a sense of unity among diverse populations by crafting a common __________ identity and inventing common traditions (Balzani and Bessnier

2021, 438). Correct answer: National 7. Benedict Anderson that from the eighteenth century onwards individuals began to perceive themselves as belonging to a nation . According to Anderson, the crucial aspect was the fact that people had to __________ that they were part of a bigger community of likeminded individuals whom they would probably never meet in person, but whose proximity and affinity they willingly embraced (Kottak 2022, 248). Correct answer: Imagine 8. Nations do not comprise of ________, but of people who share a common language, religion, as well as constructed or mutually accepted symbols, historical narratives, traditions, myths, and ideals (Balzani and Bessnier 2021, 437; Robbins et al. 2017, 234). Correct answer: Institutions Nation-states This concept emerges after the French Revolution and “refers to a group of people sharing a common cultural background and unified by a political structure that they all consider legitimate” (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014,323). In some cases, the state, and the nation overlap (Balzani and Bessnier 2021, 427). However, in most instances, a state has more than one nation living within its territory (Robbins et al. 2017, 227). This can be seen as threatening to those who run the state, especially if the national minorities are attempting to expand their autonomy (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 392). Answers:

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National Groups States Japanese Japan Poles Poland

South Koreans South Korea Welsh, Scots, Irish, English The UK Palestinians Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, Syria

Kurds Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria Tibetans China Uighurs China

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Icelanders Iceland Métis, Inuit, First Nations Canada I hope this activity allows you to reflect on the fact that many modern states are populated by several nations. Many of them have been involved in intrastate conflicts resulting in their oppression, denial of basic civil liberties, and violation of human rights (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 324). Some of the homogenous countries on the list, like Poland, experienced ethnic cleansing as well as expelled foreign nationals post-WWII, consequently losing their diversity. Other countries, like Iceland, were geographically isolated and less prone to receiving large influxes of foreign populations, making them more uniform. As we will argue later, one of the functions of the state is to secure the interests of the dominant ethnic and/or national groups, especially their elites. Historically, this has often been achieved through the conquest of territories and groups residing on them, as well as the creation of an ideology that constructs

subjugated populations as the Other to justify their mistreatment. We will continue this topic at the end of this lesson when we discuss the role of the Canadian state in the dispossession of Indigenous peoples. Economic Function of State Now, we will shift our focus to the economic function of the state. As we will demonstrate, and as Robbins and colleagues point out “states became the building blocks of an emerging global economic network” (2017, 227), thus laying the ground for the development of a more interconnected, global world. Apart from maintaining the infrastructure, educating, and governing the population with the help of the centralized government, each state is responsible for taking care of its own "national economy" – assisting its growth and working to improve the economic well-being of its citizens. (Robbins et al. 2017, 227). Reiterating Robbins and colleagues, one way in which the state improves the quality of life for people is by enabling trade and facilitating the delivery of goods to its citizens by constructing roads, ports, canals, and subsidizing railway construction. Other basic economic functions of the state include issuing coins and paper money, setting standards for weights and measures, ensuring the safe movement of goods, and creating and managing marketplaces where merchants could sell their products. Furthermore, the state establishes tax laws, environmental regulations, labor laws and financial policies that help corporations and consumers avoid paying the real production and consumption costs (Robbins et al. 2017, 229). In other words, citizens expect the state to devise policies that will foster the growth of the national economy while expanding the labour market and will keep the prices affordable (Robbins et al. 2017, 251). Maintaining the low prices is only possible if the real costs of things, such as health risks, poverty, and environmental degradation, are passed to disenfranchised populations within its borders or to people in less powerful countries, or, alternatively to future generations (Robbins et al. 2017, 230). Early International Trade The reason we discussed the role of the state in managing the economy and trade is because the establishment of an interconnected system of states that regularly trades with each other marked the beginning of our globalized world (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 392). Let’s briefly revisit the early days of international trade, which served as the precursor to what we now call globalization.

Markets have a history spanning thousands of years. Communities established areas where merchants, farmers, and artisans could present their goods or services for sale or barter. However, with the development of new modes of transportation and manufacturing, markets evolved beyond being mere trading places; instead, entire networks were established (Robbins et al. 2017, 224). As early as 600 B.C.E., the Phoenicians and Carthaginians established regular trade routes, including circumnavigating Britain and Africa. Moreover, regions like Indonesia, the Middle East, and Africa have been engaged in Indian Ocean trade for a minimum of 2,000 years (Kottak 2022, 295). In the 13th and 14th century, China, and then later Europe and Japan, took an active role in promoting and regulating trade (Robbins et al. 2017, 227). However, before 1500 C.E., trade between various states was not as frequent as it would become after the fifteenth century (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 392) when the advances in “navigation, mapmaking, and shipbuilding fueled the geographic expansion of trading networks. Europe established regular contact with Asia, Africa, and eventually the Caribbean and the Americas “(Kottak 2022, 295). In other words, the surge in international trade around this time gave rise to the capitalist world economy— “a single world system oriented toward production for sale or exchange, with the object of maximizing profits” (Kottak 2022, 293). It also led to the expansion of economic, cultural, and political control by European states (especially Britain, France, Portugal, Spain, Belgium, and Holland) of societies “in distant lands and continents” a phenomenon commonly referred to as colonization (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 392; Kottak 2022, 304). Colonialism and Imperialism The “Age of Exploration” during which Europeans “discovered” a maritime route to the Far East and arrived in the Americas marks the first phase of modern colonialism. A second phase of European colonialism unfolded between 1875 and 1914 when European capitalists pursued new markets. This led nations to engage in fierce competition over colonies, resulting in the extension of European colonial rule to Africa, Asia, and Oceania (Kottak 2022, 304). Colonialism “is the political, social, economic, and cultural domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power for an extended time. The colonial power establishes and maintains a presence in the dominated territory, in the form of colonists and administrative personnel (Kottak 2022, 303)

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Colonial rule was enabled by the technological advantage of European soldiers, who used superior weapons to control local populations (Lavenda, Schultz and Zutter 2020, 240). The consequences of colonization were devastating for the Indigenous people. Following Columbus’ arrival in the Americas, European disease decimated 90 percent of the native populations (Robbins et al. 2017, 248). Shortly thereafter, during the initial stage of colonization, millions of Africans were forcibly taken from their native lands and sold in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Unfortunately, many of them did not survive the inhumane conditions during the voyage and perished, or they later died due to the mistreatment by the slaveholders (Ferrao and Andreatta 2014, 393). Moreover, many indigenous people were slaughtered if they refused to recognize the authority of the colonizers. If they were not murdered, they were dispossessed from their lands and lost control over natural resource, which were then extracted by the colonizers to fund the European Industrial Revolution. Those who became landless and were unable to support themselves, took up low wage jobs in plantations or factories (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 393). In some instances, they were forced by the colonizers to work “a given number of days on a given project or risk fines or imprisonment” known as corvée labour (Lavenda, Schultz and Zutter 2020, 240. Colonialism is typically accompanied by forced cultural change, also known as cultural imperialism which negatively impacted indigenous cultures, often destroying ways of life cultivated over many generations (Lavenda et al.2020, 239; Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 393; Kottak 2022, 332). Cultural imperialism “is a situation in which the ideas and practices of one culture are imposed on other cultures, which may be modified or eliminated as a result. Western colonialism appeared to produce a distinctive kind of cultural imperialism, frequently called westernization , in which the ideas and practices of Western European (or North American) culture eventually displaced many of the ideas and practices of the indigenous cultures of the colonies” (Lavenda et al. 2020, 240). However, as various scholars point out (Kottak 2022, 332), depending on the circumstances and on the treatment of native populations, some Indigenous peoples were able to balance preserving their cultures with adjusting to the new realities brought about by colonialism. You can learn more about their active role in globalization in this video: Indigenous Americans and Globalization I World History Project. (4:28 minutes) Neocolonialism

The negative effects of colonialism continue today (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 393). This is evident even though many former colonies gained political independence after World War II. Through the process known as neocolonialism, former imperial powers maintain significant political, economic, financial, and military influence over the newly formed countries (Ibid. 2014, 394). Why is this happening? As some scholars argue, the international division of labour was established during colonialism, forcing colonies to specialize and fulfill specific economic tasks that served the imperial economy. The moment the empire was dismantled, these newly formed countries, economically speaking, lost their raison d'être. That is why many had no choice but to sustain strong economic ties with their former colonizers and remain dependent on them (Lavenda et al. 2020, 240). Another way through which the dependency of former colonies on their colonizers was strengthened was through the mechanism of debt. The former started lending money to the latter, turning them into perpetual debtors. In doing so, former colonial powers have managed to maintain economic control over their former colonies. Debt serves as a significant means of control, giving the creditors significant influence. Additionally, as debtor nations are obligated to make substantial interest payments, they struggle to accumulate enough surplus capital for investing in their own economic infrastructure (Feraro and Andreatta 2014, 394). Consequently, many of the former colonies remain among the poorest countries in the world. Learning Activity: Quiz (ungraded) Now, spend a few minutes doing this True/False activity. It will allow you to recall your knowledge and thus retain it better for the upcoming weekly quiz. Question 1 of 5 After Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas, 70 percent of the native populations were decimated by European diseases. a. True b. False It was 90%

Question 2 of 5 As early as 600 B.C.E., the Phoenicians and Carthaginians established regular trade routes, including reaching the Americas. a. True b. False Correct! As early as 600 B.C.E., the Phoenicians and Carthaginians established regular trade routes, including circumnavigating Britain and Africa. Question 3 of 5 A second phase of European colonialism unfolded between 1492 and 1675 when European capitalists pursued new markets. a. True b. False Correct! A second phase of European colonialism unfolded between 1875 and 1914 when European capitalists pursued new markets. Question 4 of 5 Indigenous peoples were forced by the colonizers to work “a given number of days on a given project or risk fines or imprisonment” known as corvée labour. a. True b. False Correct! Colonialism has not ended in the 21st century; rather it has undergone a transformation, taking on a predominantly economic character. a. True b. False Correct!

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Globalization: Defining the Term As we argued earlier, human beings traversed the globe, interacting with other peoples through conquest and trade for centuries. However, it was only from the 15th century, and more intensely from the 19th century onwards, that the foundations for the global economic system were laid (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 394). According to the authors of our textbook, this occurred during the Industrial Revolution which resulted in “the development and perpetuation of many forms of social inequalities” (Robbins et al. 2017, 224). World interconnectedness, however, is different today than it was two hundred years ago. Earlier, cross-cultural encounters resulted in gradual passing of knowledge and technology through the process of cultural diffusion (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 395). When scholars describe the contemporary world, they often use adjectives such as “globalized.” In doing so, they stress a qualitative difference between the former, less-connected world and the hyper-connected world (Kottak 2022, 322). Globalization “is the intensifying flow of capital, goods, people (tourists as well as immigrants and refugees), images, and ideas around the world” (Lavenda et al. 2020, 247) facilitated by advancements in communication, transportation, and technology. Since we started this lesson with discussing the importance of trade for globalization, we will first pay attention to the circulation of goods. Today, it is difficult to imagine purchasing goods whose components were not produced elsewhere, as most of them are dependent on a global supply chain (Robbins et al. 2017, 233). The human and environmental costs associated the manufacturing, distributing, and selling of commodities in a globalized world are explored in this video: The “Cost” of Globalization (4:12 minutes)

Not only are goods circulating at an accelerated pace, but people are also more mobile than ever before. They are constantly crossing borders to work, study, travel, or escape war zones. It is estimated that 230 million people reside outside their counties of origin (Robbins et al. 2017, 239). Thanks to the Internet, they can maintain their ties with their homes through social media, text messages, Skype, WhatsApp, Facebook, and FaceTime (Kottak 2022, 337). However, not everyone benefits from globalization. Some places are vibrant hubs that attract human and financial capital, other locations are remote and isolated (Nanda and Warms 2017, 352). Globalization’s Impact on Culture The negative and positive impacts of globalization on the world’s local cultures have been widely debated, as summarized in this video (Robbins et al. 2017, 251): Globalization and Culture (6:28 minutes). In the past, many scholars sounded the alarm, claiming that this interconnectedness would eventually lead to the eradication of distinctive cultures, to be replaced by a uniform global culture (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 397; Kottak 2022, 332). The proliferation of fast-food chains around the globe, allegedly eroding local food cultures, is often cited as an example of the damage that globalization can inflict (Robbins et al. 2017, 241). The mass media is also vilified for erasing cultural differences (Kottak 2022, 332), especially small-scale Indigenous cultures. At the same time, many commentators have observed the opposite trend: people all over the world are exercising their “right to preserve their cultural identity” (Nanda and Warms 2017, 352; Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 397) and local cultures are activated by the interaction with large global forces (Robbins et al. 2017, 251). In short, globalization can have varying effects on local cultures. Hassi and Storti mention the three most common impacts of globalization on cultures. Click on the buttons below to reveal more information. Heterogenization Local cultures experience continuous transformation and reinvention due to the influence of global forces. In this perspective, local cultures become more focused on their internal features while global change occurs on the periphery. Homogenization Local cultures can be shaped by other more powerful cultures or even a global culture. Hybridization

Local cultures are impacted by both external flows and internal factors which creates a unique cultural hybrid that encompasses components of the two. Neoliberalism Globalization impacts various areas of life from culture through politics to the economy (Kottak 2022, 322). In this section, we will examine the connections between globalization, neoliberalism, and the nation-state, exploring the ways in which they shape the current unequal global economic system. Economic systems “are about the distribution of goods and services—that is, the rules, mechanisms, institutions, and systems of relations through which people get what they want” (Robbins et al. 2017, 224). At the beginning of this lesson, we enumerated some of the economic functions of the state including issuing money, regulating trade, and imposing taxes. Since the 18th century, various thinkers, most famously Adami Smith in his classic treatise The Wealth of Nations, began to advocate for limiting the intervention of the state in economic matters (Robbins et al. 2017 224). However, these ideas gained traction only later, in the second half of the twentieth century. After many years of post-war prosperity, rapid economic growth stalled in the 1970s. This is when a group of economists, philosophers, and historians led by a political philosopher Friedrich von Hayek formulated basic principles of neoliberalism (Robbins et al. 2017 224). Neoliberalism: “political and economic policies that promote free trade, individual initiative, and minimal government regulation of the economy, and oppose state control or subsidy to industries and all but minimal aid to impoverished individuals” (Nanda and Warms 2017, 380). These policies include lowering the tariffs to facilitate free trade between nations, deregulating market prices, privatizing state-owned enterprises to eliminate inefficiencies and gradually hollowing out of the

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state (Ferraro and Andreatta 2014, 395). Ideally, the principles of neoliberalism were supposed to create more equality among various states. However, the problem was that they were superimposed onto an inherently unequal post-colonial economic system in which some countries had far more power and control over resources and financial institutions than others. To learn more about the proponents of this neoliberalism and the well-known criticisms of it, watch this short video: Pros and Cons of Neoliberalism. (2:59 minutes) How, in practice, did neoliberalism contribute to widening global inequalities? When the stagnation of the 1970s hit the countries of the Global South, they had no choice but to borrow money from the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank. These economic institutions provided loans, but there was a catch: the borrowing countries were required to implement neoliberal economic policies, known as Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs ). This involved “reducing the value of their currency, thus making goods produced in the country cheaper for foreign buyers (and thereby encouraging exports); and making foreign goods more expensive for citizens (thereby discouraging imports). [Additionally, it meant] reducing state funding for education, welfare, and health and imposing user fees for school attendance” (Robbins et al. 2017, 226). Consequently, citizens of these countries experienced impoverishment and a significant decline in their quality of life. Moreover, servicing the debt was so costly that many were unable to pay it off and even went bankrupt, only to be offered loans with more draconian conditions. Consequently, poor countries became even poorer, while their wealthy equivalents amassed greater wealth. Thus, the divide between the prosperous Global North versus the impoverished Global South, which roughly aligns with the former colonizers- former colonies division, has only strengthened and continues to persist today. Question 1 of 5 Globalization has a negative effect on local cultures. a. True b. False Correct! Globalization can have both positive and negative effects on local cultures. In some instances, they might undergo “Westernization” and gradually lose their distinctive traits. Conversely, at other times, local cultures might be stimulated by competition from a global culture evolving into hybrids that combine global and local cultural elements. Alternatively, they might respond with an insular, “defensive” manner, resulting in the doubling down on traditional ways. The foundation for the global economic system was laid first in the 15th, and then the 19th century. a. True b. False Correct! The world has always been interconnected, but the foundations for the accelerated type of globalization that we experience today were laid in the two waves of colonization. The first wave began in the 15th century and the second unfolded four centuries later.

Everyone benefits from globalization equally. a. True b. False Correct! Some regions of the world are not central hubs; therefore, they are not as well connected to the global economy as other areas. The intensive flow of goods, money, and technology that defines globalization is not as pronounced in these places, commonly referred to as peripheries. Neoliberalism is associated with the free press. a. True b. False Correct! Neoliberalism is a stance that pushes for the reduction of the state involvement in the economy; hence, it advocates for free trade, not necessarily free press Structural Adjustment Programmes or SAPs are examples of neoliberal policies. a. True b. False Correct! Neoliberal policies encompass lowering tariffs, removal of trade barriers, and reduction of government intervention in the economy. Thus, Structural Adjustment Programs that historically demanded that many countries in the Global South, indebted to the IMF, restructure their economies to limit the state’s role, can be defined as neoliberal policies. In Lesson 9, we briefly discussed national identity. We concluded that for members of a nation to feel they belong, they must see themselves as part of an imagined community. As we will argue in this section, historically, many groups residing in what we now call Canada were constructed as this nation’s “others” (Robbins et al. 2017, 235), a phenomenon anthropologists refer to as internal colonialism (Lavenda et al. 2020, 240). One way of excluding people from Canada was by creating a tendentious version of its history that elevated the achievements of some groups and downplayed the role of others. Another was by imposing official languages (French and English) and thus implying that people who do not speak them do not belong (Robbins et al. 2017, 236). In this manner, the nation’s “others” were excluded from the imagined community or worse, were cast as playing the role of villains. Since the beginning of the Confederation, Canadians formed their national identity in opposition to Indigenous peoples, racialized immigrants, and refugees. All this runs counter to Canada’s international reputation as a country that is accepting of differences. To outsiders, Canada might appear as a very tolerant country, having introduced the policy of multiculturalism back in 1971 and thereby acknowledging cultural diversity as a value (Robbins et al. 2017, 236). However, this assessment would overlook an evident historical fact: Canada was founded on

the genocide, dispossession, and exploitation of Indigenous peoples, who continue to experience the negative consequences of colonization to this day. Even though, until recently, curricula in public schools taught Canadian children that their country treated First Nations, the Inuit, and the Métis better than their southern neighbors, the truth was different. Indigenous peoples living in the territory of Canada were patronized and treated as 'children' who needed to be 'civilized' by any means necessary (Robbins et al. 2017, 236, 238). In other words, they were constructed as dehumanized “others,” whose lives could have been taken away, lands stolen, cultures forbidden, and families split by taking children away and placing them in residential schools where they were subjected to physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. They were forced not only to abandon but also denounce their own culture (Robbins et al. 2017, 237). Initially, however, the French and the British showed respect to the Indigenous peoples, relying on them as suppliers of furs and skins. These resources were traded and ultimately generated great wealth for the Europeans who capitalized on the growing global demand for these goods. But as time passed and “as the population of European settlers grew and land started to matter more than people,” it became clear that the treaties signed by the First Nations and the Canadian state were drafted with the goal of further disenfranchising the Indigenous population (Robbins et al. 2017, 238). Cultural imperialism, combined with political disenfranchisement and economic exploitation, were textbook strategies—described at the beginning of this lesson—used to exclude certain populations and ensure that the state and its elites had control over valuable resources. In Canadian history there is a pattern of certain groups being exploited, having their rights denied, and being excluded from belonging to the imagined community. The country’s immigration policies have historically favoured white Western Europeans, particularly English-speaking, but welcomed racialized immigrants for dangerous and demanding jobs. This happened with Chinese workers building the Canadian Pacific Railway. After their work was completed, and provided they survived, they were prevented from bringing their families and faced discrimination (Robbins 2017, 235). To cite Robbins and colleagues, “Canada’s history is laced with demonstrations of the power of the colonizers over the colonized” (2017, 235) which has particularly negatively impacted Indigenous peoples. As the effects of this troubling legacy persist to this day, it is crucial to understand the significance of Land Acknowledgements. We must learn about the Indigenous peoples and their land on which we live, reside, study, and work. The following information is based on the findings of Laurier’s Students’ Public Interest Research Group (LSPIRG). LSPIRG supports a Know the Land Territories Campaign each year. Additionally, it hosts a series of events on Wilfrid Laurier University's campus to raise awareness among students about the

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traditional territory of Waterloo. Here is an overview of LSPIRG's Know the Land Territories Campaign in the Waterloo region. What is a Land Acknowledgment? A land acknowledgement is a formal statement that recognizes the unique and enduring relationship that exists between Indigenous Peoples and their traditional territories. Why do we recognize the land? To recognize the land is an expression of gratitude and appreciation to those whose territory you reside on, and a way of honouring the Aboriginal people who have been living and working on the land from time immemorial. It is important to understand the long-standing history that has brought you to reside on the land, and to seek to understand your place within that history. Land acknowledgements do not exist in a past tense, or historical context: colonialism is a current ongoing process, and we need to build our mindfulness of our present participation. It is also worth noting that acknowledging the land is Indigenous protocol. Whose land does Wilfrid Laurier University reside on? In Kitchener, Waterloo, and Cambridge we are on the traditional territory of the Neutral, Anishnawbe and Haudenosaunee peoples. Anishnawbe peoples, also known as Ojibway/Chippewa/Mississauga/Algonquin, original ancestral home was located on the north shore of Lake Huron, at the mouth of the Mississaugi River. During the 17th century, the Anishnawbe split, with groups migrating east to the Bay of Quinte and South into what is now known as south-western Ontario (from Toronto to Lake Erie). During the 18th century, the Anishnawbe began losing land due to European settlement and the northern movement of the Haudenosaunee into south-western Ontario. Today, Anishnawbe in south-western Ontario include the Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation, Aamjiwnaang, Chippewas of the Thames First Nation, and the Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point. Haudenosaunee peoples, also known as Six Nations and Iroquois, are various nations that formed what is known as the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. It originally consisted of five Nations: Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, Mohawk, and Seneca, but in 1722, the Tuscarora joined to form the Six Nations. The Haudenosaunee reside in parts of Ontario and Upstate New York. The largest reserve in North America is the Six Nations of the Grand River, located near Branford, Ontario. Other communities where Haudenosaunee reside include Tyendinaga, Awkwesasne, and Oneida Nation of the Thames, to name a few.

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Neutral peoples, called the Neutrals due to their tendency to avoid conflict, and "Attawandaron" by the Hurons, are made up of many distinct nations. They were decimated by colonial diseases during early colonization and any remaining members were mostly adopted into the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. - LSPIRG's Know the Land Territories Campaign Kitchener-Waterloo is located on the Haldimand Tract, which, on October 25, 1784, after the American Revolutionary War of Independence, was given to the Six Nations of the Grand River by the British as compensation for their role in the war and for the loss of their traditional lands in Upstate New York. Of the 950,000 acres given to the Haudenosaunee (six miles on either side of the Grand River, all the way along its length), only 46,000 acres (less than 5 per cent) remains Six Nations land. It is important to note that Wilfrid Laurier University’s Waterloo and Brantford campuses are both located on the Haldimand Tract. How do we acknowledge the land? “We acknowledge that we are on the traditional territory of the Neutral, Anishnawbe (Ah-nish-nah-bay) and Haudenosaunee (Ho-deh-no-show-nee) peoples”. Although it is important to acknowledge the land, it is only a first step. We are all treaty signers, and are thus responsible and accountable for the violence that Indigenous people face in Canada. Allyship is a continuous process; It is not a designation that one can earn and hold forevermore. Allies must continually engage in self-reflection, and must consistently work at being an ally (through learning, acting in a de-colonial manner, and sustaining relationships with Indigenous Peoples, etc.)

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In 2016, LSPIRG outlined three suggestions to initiate the "constant and enduring practice of showing support" for Indigenous populations in Canada. Learn: About oppression and privilege. About the history of colonization. About Indigenous peoples and cultures. About the land you live on. To listen. There are many books, blogs, documentaries, independent media sites, plays, and songs that Indigenous people have written and performed that are great places to start learning. Build relationships: Building relationships is a very important aspect of standing in solidarity. A great place to start on campus is going to the Aboriginal Student Center, located at 187 Albert Street. in Waterloo and 111 Darling St. in Brantford. Both campuses host a soup lunch once a week that is open to everyone. In addition, many other events take place throughout the year. Follow them on Facebook or visit in person to see what they have going on! Act: Be accountable towards Indigenous people and communities by affirming the importance of what they’re saying, aligning oneself with the struggle, and speaking up when something problematic is said. - LSPIRG's Know the Land Territories Campaign Question 1 of 4 Whose land does Wilfrid Laurier University reside on? a. the Neutral, Anishnawbe and Haudenosaunee b. the Cree, Mi’kmaq and Anishnawbe c. the Neutral, Dene and Haudenosaunee d. the Nlaka'pamux, the Cree and Haudenosaunee Correct! Which statement is untrue about being an ally of Indigenous Peoples?

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a. Learning about the history of colonization in Canada is sufficient to be a good ally. b. Being an ally is a continuous process that requires self-reflection. c. Allies of Indigenous People must act in a decolonial manner. d. Building relationships with Indigenous community is one of the pillars of being their ally. Which peoples are known as Six Nations? a. Anishnawbe b. Haudenosaunee c. Dene d. Cree Why do we recognize the land? a. To express gratitude and appreciation to those whose territory we reside on b. To avoid a lawsuit c. To be an ally of Indigenous Peoples in the context of an ongoing colonization process d. a and c

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