ATH-210 milestone 3

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Apr 3, 2024

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Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacteria that causes tuberculosis. Although it can damage other organs as well, it mainly affects the lungs. There is a complicated link between human genetic variation and tuberculosis. Human susceptibility to tuberculosis can be influenced by specific genetic variants. To illustrate, there are several variations of the NRAMP1 gene that can either enhance or decrease an individual's vulnerability to tuberculosis or interfere with the immunological response to the disease (Bellamy et al., 1998). Numerous variables may contribute to greater prevalence of tuberculosis in some communities or cultures. Socioeconomic circumstances, healthcare accessibility, and cultural customs are a few examples. For example, the transmission of tuberculosis is more likely in societies where close contact is widespread, such as in crowded living situations (Bennett, 2002). Furthermore, a delayed diagnosis and course of treatment may contribute to greater prevalence of tuberculosis in groups with inadequate access to healthcare. The diversity of human genetics linked to tuberculosis can also be influenced by the environment. For example, populations residing in high-pollution areas might have evolved genetic adaptations that make them more vulnerable to respiratory illnesses like tuberculosis (Tao et al., 2023). Similarly, there might be more genetic variation in immune system genes in areas where infectious diseases are common, which could affect a person's vulnerability to tuberculosis. Employing tuberculosis in a museum display may give rise to moral dilemmas. For example, it might stigmatize groups of people who have high incidences of tuberculosis. The application of cultural relativism can help to lessen these effects. This method places more emphasis on comprehending a culture from its own viewpoint than on evaluating it in accordance with the norms of another culture. The display can educate visitors about tuberculosis without

perpetuating prejudices or stigmatizing certain populations by presenting facts about the disease in a culturally appropriate manner. According to anthropologists, race is a social construct—that is, it is a concept that has been formed and molded by society rather than a biological or genetic reality. People are categorized using this system according to their physical attributes, such as their skin tone, hair type, and facial features. Significant genetic differences between human populations do not, however, correspond with these physical disparities. Inferring that "there is no such thing as race" or that "race isn't real" is not what the idea that there are separate biological human races is not a genuine scientific concept intends to convey (Santangelo, n.d.). Although race is a real notion, it is not derived from biology or science; rather, it is based on social and cultural definitions. Thus, racial classifications like "black" and "white" are just as real as those for "American" and "African American." Though not biological, a lot of things in the world are real. Race, thus, reflects socially constructed conceptions subjectively defined by cultures to represent ideas of division that are seen to be significant, rather than biological qualities. In an attempt to highlight their cultural and arbitrary origins, some sociologists and anthropologists now refer to them as social races. The best way to conceptualize race is as a socio-historical construct (Santangelo, n.d.). Examples from today's world show how race is shaped by social and cultural factors, such as racial profiling, and census classifications. Individuals are singled out or under suspicion due to their presumed race or ethnicity, a process known as "racial profiling." That demonstrates rather clearly how racial classifications are created and used in society. Rather than representing biological facts, the racial categories

employed in national censuses reflect society views on race that fluctuate over time and across national boundaries is the process known as census classification. Although the terms race and ethnicity are frequently used synonymously, they have distinct meanings: People are categorized by race, a social construct, according to their physical attributes. Cultural elements such as nationality, ancestry, language, and regional culture are referred to as ethnicity. Because ethnicity recognizes the cultural and social impacts on human populations rather than depending on the problematic idea of race, biological anthropologists prefer to utilize ethnicity over race. The following are some instances from biological anthropology and human biology that support the notion that race is a social construct: Different phenotypes can be introduced in an organism through genetic differences that change gene activity or protein function. Natural selection refers to the mechanism by which genetic variation is more likely to be passed down to the following generation if the characteristic is favorable and aids in the individual's survival and reproduction (MedlinePlus, 2021). Research refutes the notion that races are discrete genetic categories, demonstrating that there is greater genetic variability within racial groups than between them. This is referred to as Genetic Variation or Genetic Variability. The idea of race is not consistent with the migration and evolutionary trends of humans. Due to our high levels of migration, genetic mixing has historically been the norm rather than the exception for humans. Public interest in human evolution is sometimes piqued for more sinister reasons. The acknowledgement of human diversity is fundamental to research on human origins. An integral aspect of the study of human evolution is the examination of the biological

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backgrounds and interrelationships among human populations, sometimes referred to as "race." Gaining an understanding of the origins of humanity entails understanding the basis, evolution, and dynamics of "the races" within humans (Caspari & Wolpoff, n.d.). The fact that "Different cultures have different moral codes" has been used by numerous philosophers as the foundation for their theories on morality. They argue that the concept of an ethical universal truth is a myth. All that exists are the customs of many communities. It is impossible to call these customs "correct" or "incorrect," as that would imply that we have our own unique moral code by which they must be evaluated. However, no such norm exists independently; all standards are culturally specific (Rachels, 1999). The theory of "cultural relativism" holds that an individual's actions and views should be interpreted within the framework of their own culture. For biological anthropologists researching race, this viewpoint is essential because it helps them comprehend how various communities define and interpret the idea of race. Anthropologists can avoid ethnocentrism—the practice of judging other cultures by the norms of one's own culture—by adopting a cultural relativist viewpoint. This is especially crucial when researching race because it dispels and challenges racial preconceptions and stereotypes.

References Bellamy, R., Ruwende, C., Corrah, T., McAdam, K. P., Whittle, H. C., & Hill, A. V. (1998). Variations in the NRAMP1 gene and susceptibility to tuberculosis in West Africans. The New England Journal of Medicine , 338 (10), 640–644. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199803053381002 Bennett, S. (2002). Investigation of Environmental and Host-related Risk Factors for Tuberculosis in Africa. II. Investigation of Host Genetic Factors. American Journal of Epidemiology , 155 (11), 1074–1079. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/155.11.1074 Caspari, R., & Wolpoff, M. (n.d.). Fathom :: The Source for Online Learning . Deepblue.lib.umich.edu. Retrieved February 11, 2024, from https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/55281/index.html? sequence=10&isAllowed=y MedlinePlus. (2021, August 5). How are gene variants involved in evolution?: MedlinePlus Genetics . Medlineplus.gov. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/mutationsanddisorders/evolution/ #:~:text=Genetic%20variations%20that%20alter%20gene Rachels, J. (1999). The Challenge of Cultural Relativism . Uca.edu. https://faculty.uca.edu/rnovy/Rachels--Cultural%20Relativism.htm Santangelo, A. M. (n.d.). Race and Ethnicity. Pressbooks.cuny.edu . Retrieved February 11, 2024, from https://pressbooks.cuny.edu/discoveringculturalanthropology/chapter/chapter-9/

Tao, B., Li, Z., Wang, Y., Wu, J., Shi, X., Shi, J., Liu, Q., & Wang, J. (2023). Environment pollutants exposure affects the endogenous activation of within-host Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Environmental Research , 227 , 115695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.115695

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ATH-210 milestone 3

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