Anth1101additionalnotes#2

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1 Anth 1101 – Additional notes #2 This online course is self-directed. At home, students should study the lecture slides as posted on Blackboard under the Content link, in conjunction with the following additional notes. Read the textbook readings as listed in the course outline. Students are strongly advised to study the lecture slide topics and read the textbook readings on a weekly basis as listed in the Topic Schedule in the course outline. The following additional notes are arranged by section headings as they appear in the Powerpoint lecture slide files (posted under Content on Blackboard). I have only included additional explanation/definitions that are not included in the lecture slides or the textbook. For information not in these additional notes, refer to the textbook, the lecture slides, or you may email me with your questions. The following additional notes cover Powerpoint file number 3 (from slide number 23 up to the end of this Powerpoint file: slide number 50), posted under Content on Blackboard, which deal with the material for the second third of the course up to the second interm exam. POWERPOINT FILE: 3Paleoanth continued Early Homo - the earliest dated evidence for fossils that are classified in the genus Homo , date to between about 2.5mya and 1.6mya. These earliest Homo fossils are commonly referred to as ‘early Homo ’, and there is debate over whether this fossil set forms one single species or two separate species (as discussed below). These earliest Homo fossils are only found in Africa (see lecture slides for examples of sites where they have been found). - as compared with the australopithecine species, the early Homo species have a larger brain size, smaller teeth and thinner enamel (related to their softer diet), the shape of the cranium is more rounded (due to the larger brain size), they have less subnasal prognathism, and smaller muscle attachment sites on the cranium (since their softer diet required smaller chewing muscles). Intentionally manufactured stone tools have been found in association with early Homo fossils. - the early Homo fossil set has considerable variability in both size and shape features, which has led to debate over whether the early Homo fossil set represents one single species or two distinct species (as discussed in chapter 11 of the course textbook). Today, the majority of researchers recognize that the early Homo fossil set represents two distinct species: Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis. Oldowan tool industry - the earliest dating physical archaeological evidence for human culture is intentionally manufactured stone tools, associated with the early Homo species and Homo ergaster (as discussed below). These early stone tools are classified in the Oldowan tool industry and date to between 2.5 and 1.4mya, which is characteristic of the earlier part of the Paleolithic period of time.

2 - the Paleolithic, or the ‘old stone age’, is split into 3 subperiods (Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic), and is a period of time characterized by a hunter/gatherer lifeway, using manufactured stone tools. The Oldowan tool industry forms the earlier part of the Lower Paleolithic. - the Oldowan industry includes two tool types: 1. core (chopper) tools – manufactured from the original stone. Three to five flakes are removed from one side of the stone to create a rough cutting edge. 2. flake tools – the bits (or in archaeological terminology ‘flakes’) removed from the original stone have sharp edges, and were also used as cutting tools. - toward the end of the Oldowan period of time, Oldowan core tools become a little more complex (eight to ten flakes are removed to create the cutting edge, instead of three to five flakes), and these later Oldowan tools are referred to as the ‘Developed Oldowan’. - the australopithecine species likely did not manufacture stone tools, since Oldowan tools are only found in association with australopithecine fossils when early Homo fossils are also present, indicating that early Homo manufactured the tools and not the australopithecines. The one exception to this is A. garhi fossils, which have been found in association with Oldowan tools (without the presence of early Homo fossils), suggesting that A. garhi was the only australopithecine species that intentionally modified stones for tools. Hominin lifeways - as discussed earlier, the early hominin species, after 5mya, migrated from the shrinking tropical forests in Africa and colonized the expanding savanna grasslands. As a result, the early hominins had to adapt their diet to this new environment. As discussed above, the australopithecines (in particular the robust australopithecines) adapted their diet to concentrate on tough crunchy plant foods widely available on the savanna grasslands (grasses, seeds, nuts and roots), which led to the evolution of robust cranial features in the australopithecines (as discussed previously), as well as increased evidence of tooth microwear (increased pitting and abrasions on fossil australopithecine teeth due to their tough plant diet). In contrast, the early Homo species adapted their diet to the savanna grasslands by incorporating raw meat into their diet (a softer food source), and so the early Homo diet was less tough and crunchy as compared with the australopithecine diet, as evidenced by more gracile cranial morphology and reduced tooth microwear in early Homo fossils. - incorporating meat into the early Homo diet was evolutionarily advantageous. Early Homo, with larger brains and increased intelligence for cooperation and planning, had a greater mental capability to access meat sources than did the australopithecines. - evidence indicates that early Homo obtained their meat primarily through scavenging the left-overs from carcasses killed by other savanna predators (ie lions, leopards), rather than actively hunting. The evidence that shows that early Homo primarily scavenged their meat from dead carcasses (instead of actively hunting): on prey bones associated with early Homo, stone tool scratch marks overlie large carnivore tooth marks, indicating that the lions killed the prey animal and the early Homo came afterwards to scavenge the leftovers. - the archaeological definition of a ‘home base’ is a specific location that hunter/gatherers return to on a regular basis (night after night) where food sharing, sleeping and socializing occur. There has been debate over how early in time the first home bases occurred. In the past, it has been suggested that some archaeological sites that date to the early Homo period of time represent early

3 Homo home bases. Today, most researchers do not think these sites represent home bases (one example is the site of Olduvai Gorge, Bed 1 – see further discussion in chapter 11 in textbook). Homo erectus/ergaster - in east Africa, by about 1.8mya, early Homo had evolved into a more advanced species (see lecture slides for examples of sites where these more advanced fossils have been found). In comparison to early Homo fossils, these later dating fossils have a larger brain size, less subnasal prognathism, smaller teeth (related to a softer diet as discussed below), have a large subraorbital torus (large brow ridges), the presence of a sagittal keel (a slight angularity of the shape of the skull from a front view), and an angled occiput (the rear part of the skull forms a distinct angle – see diagrams in lecture slides). - the earlier fossils in this fossil set (dating to between 1.8-1.5mya) are only found in Africa. However, later fossils from this fossil set that date between 1.5mya to 500kya, are found both in Africa as well as southern Europe, and south and east Asia. This represents the earliest migration of any hominin species outside of Africa. - there is some debate over whether this fossil set represents one single species or two separate species. Currently, the minority view is that all of these fossils (dating to between 1.8mya and 500kya) are a single species, named Homo erectus . The majority view is that the earlier fossils that are only found in Africa (dating to between 1.8-1.5mya) represent one species named Homo ergaster , and that the later fossils found in Africa, Europe and Asia (dating from 1.5mya to 500kya) represent a second species named Homo erectus . - the overall range of these fossils include both temperate and tropical regions of Africa, Europe and Asia. - the colonization of temperate regions of the Old World required adaptations for living in environments where temperatures were cold in winter. Evidence indicates that this is the period of time where hominins first learned how to control fire (for the purpose of providing heat in cold weather, a light source after dark, scaring away potential predators [since wild animals are scared of fire], and for cooking food [since cooked food is easier to digest]). - after 1.4mya there is increased evidence for active hunting for meat (as opposed to scavenging), as evidenced by the presence of stone tool scratch marks on prey bones in the absence of large carnivore tooth marks, indicating that Homo erectus killed the prey animal. Acheulean tool industry - associated with the later part of the Lower Paleolithic. - as compared with the earlier Oldowan tool industry, the Acheulean tool industry has an increased variety of different tool types, and is characterized by two innovations that do not appear in the Oldowan industry (see diagrams in lecture slides): 1. bifacial tools – enough flakes have been removed so there is no original surface of the stone remaining, permitting the production of more standardized symmetrical shapes. 2. retouching – removing small flakes from the cutting edge to refine the cutting edge, permitting sharper more effective cutting edges. Archaic Homo sapiens

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4 - archaic Homo sapiens have a larger brain than Homo erectus/ergaster , the rear part of the skull is more rounded and, as with all hominin species (except for modern Homo sapiens) do not have a distinct chin. - currently, the majority of researchers consider the archaic Homo sapiens fossil set to be transitional fossils between the earlier Homo erectus and later modern Homo sapiens . However, a minority of researchers consider the archaic Homo sapiens fossil set to be a distinct species named Homo heidelbergensis . - the geographical range of archaic Homo sapiens is about the same as that of later Homo erectus . - archaic Homo sapiens is associated with the Acheulean tool industry. - there is increased archaeological evidence for the controlled use of fire associated with archaic Homo sapiens . - the earliest archaeological evidence for the construction of shelters occurs during the time period of archaic Homo sapiens , for example the site of Terra Amata (see chapter 11 in textbook for further description). H. (sapiens) neanderthalensis - by about 200kya fossils of a new hominin species appear in the fossil record, the Neanderthals (found in Europe and the Middle East). The earliest discovered ancient hominin fossil (that was recognized to be an ancient form of human at the time of discovery) was a Neanderthal fossil discovered in 1856 in the Neander Valley in Germany. - Neanderthals lived in Europe and the Middle East during the last ice age and evolved a shorter, stockier body shape (which conserves body heat) as an adaptation to the cold ice age environment. - a characteristic feature of the Neanderthals is the presence of an occipital bun (a bulge at the rear part of the skull – see diagram in lecture slides). - the Neanderthals actively hunted large game animals, made their homes in caves and rockshelters (large overhangs of rock), and were the earliest hominin species to provide evidence of intentional burial of the dead. Neanderthals most often buried their dead inside of caves (these Neanderthal burials provide indirect evidence of early spirituality: some Neanderthal burials include grave goods [additional objects placed within the grave in addition to the body] indicating the possibility of the idea of life after death (see further explanation in chapter 11 of the textbook). - during this period of time, when Neanderthals were present in Europe and the Middle East, the earliest modern Homo sapiens fossils are found in Africa as early as about 200kya. In Asia, archaic Homo sapiens persist until about 50kya, and are then replaced by modern Homo sapiens . Mousterian tool industry - the Mousterian tool industry is associated with the Middle Paleolithic period of time, and is found in Europe and the Middle East associated with Neanderthals, and in Africa associated with early modern Homo sapiens in Africa. - the Mousterian tool industry is characterized by a dominance of flake tools (see above for definition), and is characterized by two innovations (see diagrams in lecture slides): 1. hafting – attaching a wooden handle to a stone point to produce a spear. 2. Levallois technique – standardized method for producing the same size and shape of flake over and over again. Advantage: the ability to produce the same size and shape of tool over and over again.

5 Source of anatomically modern H. sapiens (am Hs ) - there is some debate relating to the source of modern humans (see chapter 12 in textbook for further explanation): 1. Multiregional Continuity Model: suggests that am Hs evolved at about the same time throughout the Old World (Africa, Europe and Asia) from pre-existing archaic Homo sapiens in these different regions. Currently, this is the minority view of researchers. 2. Out of Africa Model: suggests that am Hs first evolved in Africa about 200kya and then later migrated out of Africa to Europe and Asia, and outcompeted the archaic humans already living in Europe and Asia, causing those archaic humans to become extinct. Currently, this is the majority view of researchers. Anatomically modern H. sapiens - the earliest discovery of an ancient modern human fossil (that at the time of discovery was recognized to be ancient) was discovered at the Cro Magnon rockshelter in SW France in 1868. Since 1868 many other ancient modern human fossils have been discovered. Currently, the earliest modern Homo sapiens fossils worldwide date to about 200kya, and are found in Africa (see lecture slides and chapter 12 in the textbook for site examples). Current fossil evidence shows that the earliest modern Homo sapiens fossils are found in Africa dating to 200kya, and modern humans only appear later in other parts of the world: 40kya in Europe, 50kya in south and east Asia, and 20kya in the Americas. - as compared with earlier hominin species, modern Homo sapiens have a brain size of about 1300- 1400cc, a distinct protruding chin on the lower jaw, and of all the hominin species have the most gracile (most lightly built) skeleton. - one area of debate relates to the degree of contact/interaction between Neanderthals and modern humans. Currently, the majority view among researchers, is that the time range of occupation of Neanderthals and modern humans overlapped in both the Middle East and Europe, and therefore they would have been aware of each other’s existence. However, the archaeological evidence suggests that Neanderthals and modern lived separate lives (see chapter 12 in textbook and lecture slides for further explanation). Upper Paleolithic - cultural period of time associated with early modern Homo sapiens . - appearance of more complex art (see lecture slides and chapter 12 in textbook for more detail), including artistic engraving on bone and antler tools. - female fertility figurines: used in spiritual ceremonies coordinated by shamans, in order to ensure human fertility, but also fertility of wild plants and animals which Upper Paleolithic people depended on as hunter/gatherers. - cave art: subject matter concentrated on the animals that Upper Paleolithic people hunted. Located in deeper chambers of caves (not in living spaces). Most common interpretation of purpose of cave paintings: used in spiritual ceremonies coordinated by shamans to appeal to the spirits to ensure a successful hunt. - Upper Paleolithic burials usually were outside of caves. Increased evidence of grave goods in Upper Paleolithic burials provides increased evidence of spirituality.

6 - Upper Paleolithic people were big game hunters, but also began to include other meat sources in their diet, including: 1.fishing – evidence: fish bones found in archaeological sites, carved bone fish hooks, small stones used to sink fishing nets. 2. bird hunting – evidence: bird bones found in archaeological sites, bola stones (specific tool used for hunting birds). - first appearance of tailored clothing (specific articles of clothing made by sewing pieces of cut hide together). - increasing evidence for construction of shelters (see diagrams in lecture slides), two main types: 1. in more northerly areas, using large animal bones for supports, covered with sewn together hides. 2. in more southerly areas, using wooden poles for supports, covered with sod. Upper Paleolithic tool industries - after 40kya, modern Homo sapiens began to manufacture and use more complex tools (in relation to earlier tool industries). - there are several distinct Upper Paleolithic tool industries that have been identified in the archaeological record. - all Upper Paleolithic industries possess the innovation of blade technology. - blade: a flake that is at least twice as long as it is wide. Advantage: tools that are more pointed, sharper, more effective. Blades were manufactured by removing long thin flakes (‘blades’) from a prepared core, using either a hammer and punch or through pressure flaking (see chapter 12 in textbook for further explanation). - atlatl: ‘spear thrower’. Allows the spear to be thrown a further distance with more power. - the following are the five major tool industries associated with the Upper Paleolithic (see lecture slides and chapter 12 in the textbook for diagrams and more details): Chatelperronian: - the only blade technology Upper Paleolithic tool industry associated with later Neanderthals before they disappeared by 30kya. Aurignacian: - earliest Upper Paleolithic tool industry associated with modern humans. First appearance of projectile points carved out of bone. First appearance of bone awls (used to pierce holes in leather hides) and bone sewing needles (used to sew hides together to produce articles of clothing). Gravettian: - more refined production of blades: longer and thinner, making tools even more effective. Solutrean: - characterized by leaf-shaped points. Magdelanian: - Increased proportion of tools carved from bone and antler (some with artistic engraving), in relation to tools flaked from stone. Paleolithic stone tool production methods

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7 - the final slide of the 3Paleoanth powerpoint file summarizes stone tool production methods during the Paleolithic. In the Oldowan tool industry the production method of making Oldowan tools is called ‘direct percussion’, where one stone is used to remove flakes from a second stone in order to produce a rough cutting edge. In the Acheulean tool industry small flakes were removed from the cutting edge in order to refine the cutting edge which required more precision (which is facilitated by using bones as hammers: the ‘soft hammer technique’). In the Mousterian tool industry, the ‘Levallois technique’ was used to produce the same size and shape of flake over and over again, so as to be able to produce standardized tool shapes and sizes. In the Upper Paleolithic tool industries, long thin flakes called ‘blades’ were manufactured.