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the history of modern science, a common tter has been repeated around the world. ose who generated new ideas, such as Galileo, often attacked for their assault on tradition, ter their innovations were absorbed into the ean status quo. When Europeans then took

the history of modern science, a common tter has been repeated around the world. ose who generated new ideas, such as Galileo, often attacked for their assault on tradition, ter their innovations were absorbed into the ean status quo. When Europeans then took

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How did Gempaku’s experience indicate that there were beliefs in Japanese society restricting the routine examination of human corpses for medical research?

A Japanese View of European Science n the history of modem science, a common pattern has been repeated around the world. Those who generated new ideas, such as Galileo, were often attacked for their assault on tradition, who saw the violation of dead bodies as sacrile- gious. Over the next two hundred years, however, dissection became a routine process. In the eighteenth century, the Tokugawa shoguns had severely limited Japanese contacts with Europeans. But through the annual Dutch trade mission to Nagasaki, a few books entered the country, and some curious Japanese scholars learned Dutch so they could read them (see Chapter 20). Below, a physician named Sugita Gempaku (1733–1817) describes how, having looked at a Dutch anatomy text, he was astonished but later their innovations were absorbed into the European status quo. When Europeans then took the new science to other continents, once again these ideas and approaches challenged established tradition. Here we have an example from anatomy, with a Japanese observation of the dissection of a human corpse. For medieval Europeans the main authority in anatomy was the ancient Greek physician Galen, who, though he dissected many birds and animals, had theories about the inner workings of the human body that were based largely on specula- tion. Then, in 1543, a Belgian physician published a new scheme of human anatomy based on actual to see how accurate it was when he witnessed the dissection of a human body. Source: English translation copyright O 1997 by David J. Lu. From Japan: A Documentary History, ed. David J. Lu (Amonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), pp. 264-267. Used with permission of M. E Sharpe, Inc. AlI Rights Reserved. Not for reproduction. dissection of human cadavers. Adherents of Galen's view were upset, as were those many Christians A Dutch Lesson In Anatomy Somehow, miraculously I obtained a [Dutch] book on anatomy. [Then] I recelved a letter from ... the Town Commissioner: "A post- mortem examination of the body of a con- demned criminal by a resident physician will be held tomorrow.... You are welcome to witness it if you so desire." The next day, when we arrived at the lo- cation ... Ryotaku reached under his kimono to produce a Dutch book and showed it to us. "This is a Dutch book of anatomy called Tabulae Anatomicae. I bought this a few years ago when I went to Nagasaki, and kept it." As I examined it, it was the same book Ihad and hart, or the heart."... However, they did not look like the heart given in the Chinese medi- cal books, and none of us were sure until we could actually see the dissection. Thereafter we went together to the place that was especially set aside [for] us to observe the dissection... That day, the butcher pointed to this and that organ. Af- ter the heart, liver, gall bladder and stomach were identifled, he pointed to other parts for which there were no names. "I don't know their names. But I have dissected quite a few bodies from my youthful days... Every time I had a dissection, I pointed out to those phy- sicians many of these parts, but not a single one of them questioned What was this,' or What was that?" We compared the body as dissected against the charts both Ryotaku and. I had, and could not find a single variance from the charts. The Chinese Book of Medicine was of the same edition. We held each other's hands and exclaimed: "What a coincidence!" Ryotaku continued by saying, "When I went to Nagasaki, I learned and heard," and opened this book. "These are called long in Dutch, they are the lungs," he taught us. "This is
Transcribed Image Text:A Japanese View of European Science n the history of modem science, a common pattern has been repeated around the world. Those who generated new ideas, such as Galileo, were often attacked for their assault on tradition, who saw the violation of dead bodies as sacrile- gious. Over the next two hundred years, however, dissection became a routine process. In the eighteenth century, the Tokugawa shoguns had severely limited Japanese contacts with Europeans. But through the annual Dutch trade mission to Nagasaki, a few books entered the country, and some curious Japanese scholars learned Dutch so they could read them (see Chapter 20). Below, a physician named Sugita Gempaku (1733–1817) describes how, having looked at a Dutch anatomy text, he was astonished but later their innovations were absorbed into the European status quo. When Europeans then took the new science to other continents, once again these ideas and approaches challenged established tradition. Here we have an example from anatomy, with a Japanese observation of the dissection of a human corpse. For medieval Europeans the main authority in anatomy was the ancient Greek physician Galen, who, though he dissected many birds and animals, had theories about the inner workings of the human body that were based largely on specula- tion. Then, in 1543, a Belgian physician published a new scheme of human anatomy based on actual to see how accurate it was when he witnessed the dissection of a human body. Source: English translation copyright O 1997 by David J. Lu. From Japan: A Documentary History, ed. David J. Lu (Amonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), pp. 264-267. Used with permission of M. E Sharpe, Inc. AlI Rights Reserved. Not for reproduction. dissection of human cadavers. Adherents of Galen's view were upset, as were those many Christians A Dutch Lesson In Anatomy Somehow, miraculously I obtained a [Dutch] book on anatomy. [Then] I recelved a letter from ... the Town Commissioner: "A post- mortem examination of the body of a con- demned criminal by a resident physician will be held tomorrow.... You are welcome to witness it if you so desire." The next day, when we arrived at the lo- cation ... Ryotaku reached under his kimono to produce a Dutch book and showed it to us. "This is a Dutch book of anatomy called Tabulae Anatomicae. I bought this a few years ago when I went to Nagasaki, and kept it." As I examined it, it was the same book Ihad and hart, or the heart."... However, they did not look like the heart given in the Chinese medi- cal books, and none of us were sure until we could actually see the dissection. Thereafter we went together to the place that was especially set aside [for] us to observe the dissection... That day, the butcher pointed to this and that organ. Af- ter the heart, liver, gall bladder and stomach were identifled, he pointed to other parts for which there were no names. "I don't know their names. But I have dissected quite a few bodies from my youthful days... Every time I had a dissection, I pointed out to those phy- sicians many of these parts, but not a single one of them questioned What was this,' or What was that?" We compared the body as dissected against the charts both Ryotaku and. I had, and could not find a single variance from the charts. The Chinese Book of Medicine was of the same edition. We held each other's hands and exclaimed: "What a coincidence!" Ryotaku continued by saying, "When I went to Nagasaki, I learned and heard," and opened this book. "These are called long in Dutch, they are the lungs," he taught us. "This is
says that the lungs are like the eight petals of the lotus flower, with three petals hanging in front, three in back, and two petals forming like two ears... There were no such divisions, and the position and shapes of intestines and gastric organs were all different from those taught by the old theories. The official physicians... had witnessed dissection seven or elght times. Whenever they witnessed the dissection, they found that the old theorles contradicted reality. Each time they were perplexed and could not resolve their doubts. Every time they wrote down what they thought was strange. They wrote in their books, "The more we think of it, there must On the way home we spoke to each other and felt the same way. "How marvelous was our actual experlence today. It is a shame that we were ignorant of these things until now. As physicians... we performed our duties in complete Ignorance of the true form of the hu- man body."... Then I spoke to my compan- lon, "Somehow if we can translate anew this book called Tabulae Anatomicae, we can get a clear notion of the human body inside out. It will have great benefit in the treatment of our patlents. Let us do our best to read it and un- derstand it without the help of translators.". The next day, we assembled at the house of Ryotaku and recalled the happenings of the previous day. When we faced the Tabulae Anatomicae we felt as if we were setting sall on a great ocean in a ship without oars or a rudder. With the magnitude of the work be- fore us, we were dumbfounded by our own Ignorance.... At that time I did not know the twenty-five letters of the Dutch alphabet. I decided to study the language with firm determination, but I had to acquaint myself with letters and words gradually. be fundamental differences in the bodles of Chinese and of the eastern barbarlans." I could see why they wrote this way.... We decided that we should also examine the shape of the skeletons left exposed on the execution ground. We collected the bones, and examined a number of them. Again, we were struck by the fact that they all differed from the old theories while conforming to the Dutch charts....
Transcribed Image Text:says that the lungs are like the eight petals of the lotus flower, with three petals hanging in front, three in back, and two petals forming like two ears... There were no such divisions, and the position and shapes of intestines and gastric organs were all different from those taught by the old theories. The official physicians... had witnessed dissection seven or elght times. Whenever they witnessed the dissection, they found that the old theorles contradicted reality. Each time they were perplexed and could not resolve their doubts. Every time they wrote down what they thought was strange. They wrote in their books, "The more we think of it, there must On the way home we spoke to each other and felt the same way. "How marvelous was our actual experlence today. It is a shame that we were ignorant of these things until now. As physicians... we performed our duties in complete Ignorance of the true form of the hu- man body."... Then I spoke to my compan- lon, "Somehow if we can translate anew this book called Tabulae Anatomicae, we can get a clear notion of the human body inside out. It will have great benefit in the treatment of our patlents. Let us do our best to read it and un- derstand it without the help of translators.". The next day, we assembled at the house of Ryotaku and recalled the happenings of the previous day. When we faced the Tabulae Anatomicae we felt as if we were setting sall on a great ocean in a ship without oars or a rudder. With the magnitude of the work be- fore us, we were dumbfounded by our own Ignorance.... At that time I did not know the twenty-five letters of the Dutch alphabet. I decided to study the language with firm determination, but I had to acquaint myself with letters and words gradually. be fundamental differences in the bodles of Chinese and of the eastern barbarlans." I could see why they wrote this way.... We decided that we should also examine the shape of the skeletons left exposed on the execution ground. We collected the bones, and examined a number of them. Again, we were struck by the fact that they all differed from the old theories while conforming to the Dutch charts....
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