Cause and effect vs. showing an "association" between 2 variables is a common issue in biometrics and science. Tell me what analyses are used to validly measure a.) The strength of association between 2 variables b). The strength of dependency between 2 variables

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Q: What does it mean to say that two variables are positively​ associated? Negatively​ associated?

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A:

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Q: why is analzing the relationship between two variables considered a crucial step in data analysis/

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Q: What are some limitations of using covariance as a measure of relationship between variables?

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Q: two variables are strongly correlated, but share no causal link

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