A certain communication system is composed of 16 different symbols or messages. The probability of each messages are as follows:   M1– 1/128     M2– 5/128     M3– 7/128      M4- 8/128   M5- 15/128   M6- 23/128   M7- 11/128    M8- 17/128   M9- 14/128   M10- 2/128   M11- 5/128   M12- 3/128   M13- 5/128   M14- 4/128   M15- 2/128    M16- 6/128   (a) Determine the entropy. (b) For 1,000,000 messages, approximate the total information from message M1?

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Fault Analysis

In an electrical engineering system, a fault is an abnormal electric current flowing through the system, and fault analysis is the study of these faults. For instance, a short-circuit is a fault where the live wire touches the ground or neutral wire. If a circuit is interrupted by a failure of a current-carrying wire then an open circuit fault occurs. The open-circuit faults are also called series faults. One or more phases or ground may be involved in a three-phase fault or may occur only between two phases. Current flows into the earth in case of a ground fault or earth fault. For most situations, the prospective short circuit current of a fault that is predictable can be calculated. To limit the loss of service because of a failure, the protective devices can detect fault conditions and operate circuit breakers and also other devices. All phases equally can be affected in a poly-phase system which is known as symmetric electrical fault. The asymmetric fault becomes more complicated to analyze if only some phases are affected. By using methods such as symmetrical components, the power system analysis of these types of faults is often simplified. The main objective of power system protection is to design, detect, and interrupt power system faults.