Week 6

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Chamberlain University College of Nursing *

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SOCS185

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Sociology

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Jan 9, 2024

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Week 6 Overview Welcome to Module 6! If you were asked to think about the primary social institutions of society, what would you think about? It is likely that your first thoughts would be of family. Since you are taking a college course, education might be your second thought. After that, your answer might vary, but religion, and even health care might be among the institutions that you name. This week, we will look at each of these institutions and at some theories about their roles in our society. We will also consider the topic of health from a sociological perspective, social epidemiology, alternatives to traditional medicine, and the role government plays in funding health care. Then, we will examine all the institutions from different sociological perspectives, and we will look at some of the key issues for each in the world of today. You will soon see that it is almost impossible to raise a question about one of these institutions without it also involving at least one of the other institutions as well. Family While the concept of family exists in virtually all societies, the structure and shape of the family varies considerably over time, and from place to place. In America, the nuclear family originally consisted of a married couple and their children, but now is often used to refer to the family members under the same roof. In an extended family , aunts, uncles, grandparents, and other relatives live together, or in close proximity, with parents and their children. The nuclear family is generally associated with industrial, more mobile societies, while extended families are generally associated with agrarian, less mobile societies. How sociologists view the working of the family is dependent upon their theoretical perspective. Click the following tabs to learn about different perspectives on the family. Structural-Functionalist Perspectives on the Family Functionalists stress how the family can be an oasis of stability for society and fulfills the functions of socialization, companionship, affection, and the transfer of social status. Social-Conflict & Feminist Perspectives on the Family Sociologists who take the conflict perspective see the family as mirroring the inequality in wealth, status, and influence that one can find within society at large. They point out how the family maintains and contributes to the pattern of structured social inequality through issues such as divorce rates, sibling rivalry, inheritance, and patriarchy. Feminist theorists point out that family has traditionally served to legitimize male dominance. Symbolic-Interactionist Perspectives on the Family Interactionists focus on how people in relationships, like families or marriages, interact with one another. For example, interactionists might study how newly-married couples go about constructing their marriage and defining their gender roles in terms of domestic duties. In the United States, though, mate selection is theoretically based on romantic love, which is a modern Western notion. While in the United States people may believe they have broad options in choosing a mate, and indeed they do have broader options than in some other cultural contexts or even than in the United States a few short years ago, people still tend to find mates within a narrow range of options and situations. Mate selection varies by distinctive cultural values and beliefs.

 Endogamy specifies that there is an expectation that people are to be married to other members of their own group, be that racial, ethnic, religious, or other.   Exogamy requires mate selection outside of an individual's group. One norm governing exogamy is based on the taboo that limits sexual partners to only beyond a group of culturally-specified relatives. While the incest taboo is universal, and almost always includes immediate family, how far removed a relative must be varies dramatically from one society to the next. In America, love is viewed as essential in the mating process and is considered a rationale for marriage. In many parts of the world, however, arranged marriages often take precedence over love relationships. In the United States, sociologists have observed that American couples often practice homogamy , or marrying someone similar to one's self. Additional trends shaping family life over the past several decades include high divorce rates and an increasing percentage of single parents raising children. Most of the single parent households with children are headed by women. Cohabitation , where people maintain all, or most, of the trappings of marriage without making the relationship legal and binding, is increasing as well. This trend among couples coincides with the fact that an increasing number of people are postponing entry into marriage. Increasing acceptance of gay and lesbian couples and decisions both in the courts and legislature affirming marriage equality are also changing the definition of family Education Education is a significant social structure that socializes our children through young adulthood for the various roles that they may perform in society. Education is the formal social structure that socializes citizens of a particular society. Each of the primary sociological theoretical perspectives, (functionalist, conflict, and interactionist) takes a unique approach in analyzing the role of education in society: Click the following tabs to learn about different perspectives on education. Structural-Functionalist Perspectives on Education Theorists that take the point of view of a functionalist argue that education accomplishes an important function by communicating cultural values from one generation to the next. This training allows each new class to learn about the dominant cultural values and beliefs of their society. Learning about punctuality, being prepared for work, good citizenship, sharing, and following rules is known as the hidden curriculum. Latent functions also include delaying entry of youth into the workforce, providing daycare for young children, vocational training, and teaching courtship rituals, among others. Social-Conflict Perspectives on Education Theorists who view education from the conflict perspective see our educational system as a method of domination by cultural elites. These institutions promote the subordination of minority groups, reinforcing the existing inequality in the social class hierarchy and discouraging an alternative view of society. Schools reflect the social division within society where only the children of the wealthiest families go to the elite private schools and the children of the poor often go to underfunded poorly managed inner-city public schools. From a conflict perspective, schools are also sites of conflicts over values, as reflected in the debate over teaching creationism and evolution in schools, or the fight over the funding of sports programs at the expense of music and arts programs. Symbolic-Interactionist Perspectives on Education The interactionist perspective looks at the everyday interactions among students, and between students and teachers. Symbols such as the cap and gown, diploma, prom, and school mascots all play an important role. Interactionists point out that the labeling of children may limit their opportunities to break away from expected roles. For example, interactionists have studied how teachers' expectations about students' performance may impact their actual achievements through a self-fulfilling prophecy (Kendall, 2018). Schools have experienced a growing bureaucratization over time. Weber's analysis of large-scale organizations is useful in understanding this trend. As a result, teachers have come to be seen as workers in the mass production of students. Overemphasis on numerical ratings, standardized tests, and national curriculum standards set by the states that purchase

the most textbooks exacerbates this perception. Students have come to see themselves as a number in a depersonalized setting. In reaction to these trends, some parents have sought alternatives to traditional public education, including enrolling students in private or charter schools and home-schooling their children. Religion Religious beliefs and practices are extremely diverse, yet an overwhelming majority of the population of the world observes some type of religious practice or belief. Religion fills many roles for society. Functional theorists view religion as something that brings people together, integrating them into society. Offering a direction and an explanation for the things that happen in people's lives, religion acts as a kind of societal glue. At funerals or weddings, or stress and rapid change, such as the untimely death of a child or a natural disaster, religion has a way of bringing people together. Early sociological theorists saw the importance of religion in society, but in significantly different ways. Click the following tabs to learn about three important early sociological theorists: Durkheim, Weber, and Marx. Durkheim Durkheim was one of the first sociologists to see the significance of religion in society and to undertake a sociological study of religion. According to Durkheim, religion serves to unify a population into a system of practices and beliefs relative to things that are considered sacred (Kendall, 2018). In his view, religious traditions divide the world into two parts: the sacred and the profane (what we now call secular ).  The sacred consists of aspects that elevate daily life and that inspire us and give us a sense of awe and even fear.  The profane , which literally means “outside the temple,” (p. 364) consists of the mundane elements of everyday life.  Using Durkheim's view of religion, it is possible to view major sporting events as religious experiences, especially professional football, with its totem animal and other symbols, tailgate rituals, ritualistic attire, and devoted followers. Most games are even held on the Sabbath. Weber Max Weber believed that there was a direct link between the rise of Protestantism and capitalism. In his best-known book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1976/1904-1905), Weber recognized a connection between the two. Capitalism, as the word suggests, requires the accumulation of capital.  Under Roman Catholicism , wealth was to be given to the poor and/or the church; accumulating a vast personal fortune was considered a sin.  Under Calvinism , and its notion of predestination, the accumulation of personal wealth was seen as proof of God’s favor. Wealth was not to be shared with the poor. Thriftiness was a virtue. Marx Karl Marx is well-known for saying that religion was the “opiate of the masses” (Kendall, 2018, p. 369). According to Marx, religion, like a drug, is an escape from reality and diverts people's attention from their economic oppression and worldly concerns. Marx viewed religion as creating a false consciousness, which then reduces the chance that social movement will be carried out by the collective population. The conflict view of religion espoused by Marx argues that religion impedes social change, by encouraging oppressed people to accept their immediate poverty or exploitation in this life in order to get their heavenly reward in the next one.

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Sociologists identify 5 main types of religious groups. Type Description Examples Ecclesia National religious organization  Is closely allied with the state  Claims a majority of the nation as members  Is seen as the state religion  Holy Roman Empire  Church of England  Islamic Republic of Iran Church Large, bureaucratically- organized religious institution  Not officially linked with a state or government  Organized hierarchically, usually having clergy with many years of formal training  Usually has religious services with elaborate rituals  Lutheran church  Episcopal church Denomination Large religious organization  Not officially linked with any particular state or government  Is somewhat midway in size, formality, and bureaucratic structure between a church and a sect  May have clergy with formal training  May encourage more participation from lay members than a church might  Is less likely to excommunicate members than a church might  May be more common in Protestant Denominations in U.S.  Presbyterian  Methodist

Type Description Examples societies with religious pluralism, like the United States, which has more denominations than other countries do (Kendall, 2018) Sect Group that breaks away from a denomination  Often re-establishes a different idea of what they see as the "true" church or to offer some sort of perceived needed reform  Becomes a denomination when/if it grows sufficiently and becomes more established, or even mainstream  Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- Day Saints (often known as Mormons) New Religious Movement (NMR)  Is usually smaller in size when compared to a sect  Tends to be somewhat secretive  Represents either an end-of-the-world approach or a belief system based on unconventional, often science- fiction-like origin and salvation stories  Formerly referred to as a cult  Unification church (known as "Moonies")  Scientology

Health and Health Care Health is the total physical, mental, and social welfare of an individual and a society. Health care is any activity to improve health. In the 18th and 19th centuries, American health care was characterized by self-help, prevention, bloodletting, and a variety of approaches that ranged from helpful, to harmless, to dangerous practices. They were performed by a host of different types of practitioners, from self-taught, to barbers, to those with some formal medical training. With the growth of the American Medical Association, the medical model became standard. By the 1920s, medical doctors gained significant control of medical practice, financing, and policy, while excluding other practitioners. Critics of the medical model assert that medical school emphasizes technical and clinical skill, dehumanizing doctor-patient relationships. The role of nurses is still to remain subordinate to the doctor. Holistic medicine , which includes such practices as massage, chiropractic, acupuncture, herbs, nutrition, visualization, and exercise, among other practices, is continuing to challenge the American medical establishment. In holistic medicine, practitioners factor in spiritual, mental, emotional, as well as the physical well-being of the patient. Approximately one-third of American adults use some type of alternative therapy (Kendall, 2018). However, most alternative therapies are not covered by health insurance. Funding by the federal government, especially via Medicare and Medicaid payments, has a significant influence on the structure of the American health care system. Social epidemiology is the study of the distribution of disease across a population. Research in a variety of countries has shown that the rates of mortality and disability are highest among people in the lower classes. Evidence suggests that environmental and economic conditions of minority groups are directly related to higher morbidity and mortality rates. While women access health care more frequently than men, men experience a higher rate of some illnesses including heart disease, many types of cancer, and parasitic disease as compared to women (CDC, 2018). Younger people in the United States use health care services less frequently than elderly Americans. Both the very young and the very old are at the center of discussions about allocation of scarce health care resources. Social forces can come into play in determining whether we perceive people as healthy or ill, and varying sociological theoretical perspectives can help us better understand ways we might categorize people as healthy or ill. Structural-Functionalist Perspectives on Health & Health Care Structural-functionalists look at the relationship between the ill person and the care provider. Talcott Parsons coined the phrase sick role to explain the expected behaviors required of people considered “sick” (Kendall, 2018). Functionalists also stress that members of society must be healthy in order to contribute to society and to maintain society as a stable, functional system. Symbolic-Interactionist Perspectives on Health & Health Care Symbolic- interactionists look to the roles played by healthcare professionals and patients. Interactionism emphasizes that patients should not always be seen as passive, but as taking an active part in their own healthcare. Labeling theorists suggest health care providers can label someone as “healthy” or “ill,” and these labels shape how we see ourselves, and how we are treated by our employers, educational institutions, family, friends, and society at large (Spencer, Lewis, & Reid, 2018). Social-Conflict Perspectives on Health & Health Care

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Social-conflict theorists emphasize the political, economic, and social forces that affect health and health care. Social- conflict theorists also analyze the entire medical-industrial complex, or the entire collection of physicians, hospitals, and industries such as insurance, pharmaceutical, and medical supply companies, in its effects on health and health care.

Week 6

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