PSY 215 Weekly Discussion Posts
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Portland Community College *
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215
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Sociology
Date
Feb 20, 2024
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11 Questions for evaluating your discussion posts—Ask yourself these questions:
1.
Did you include the specific question you are answering and post your topic in the subject line? 2.
Did you answer the question being asked? 3.
Did you refer to specific information in the text with its page#?
4.
Did you stay on topic and balance your personal applications with theory and research?
5.
Did you include the name of the person you are responding to?
6.
Did you submit your main post early in the week? (By Friday at the latest)
7.
Did you return later in the week to respond to others?
8.
How many other posts did you read?
9.
How many other posts did you respond to? (Minimum of two)
10.
Did you check your post for grammar and spelling errors before submitting it? 11.
Is your main post the equivalent, in depth, of a 1&1/2 to 2 page paper?
Introduction Post
Due: 4/5/2023
Prompt
Introduce yourself to the class. Who are you? Why are you taking this course? What previous experience do you have working with people (as it might relate to this class)? What is one important thing you really need to get from this class (besides an A)? (You might skim the Table of Contents for ideas.) (Be sure to do this Introduction posting no later than Wednesday or Thursday of the first week. Make this Introduction a couple of paragraphs about who you are. You can also respond to your other classmates' introductions, if you wish. Also, be aware that this Introduction post is not the same as Discussion #1.)
Response
Hello everyone! My name is Stefanie and I am looking forward to learning
both with and from each of you throughout this class. A little about me: I am in my last term at PCC as I will be starting OHSU’s accelerated BSN program in the fall and this course is one of my last two prerequisites. I am VERY excited to start at OHSU as I have wanted to be a nurse for most
of my life and it is still a little surreal that I'm in a program and so close to that goal now. I am looking forward to learning as much as I can this term
and then taking a break over the summer to soak up some quality time with my husband and our small zoo (three dogs and a cat) before I jump into that fast-paced program.
I feel that I have a great amount of working with people across all ages of the lifespan through my education, career, and personal life. I have my B.S. in Criminology and Criminal Justice from PSU, so a good chunk of my education was focused on the psychological and sociological influences that impact behavior and decision making in that respect. In terms of my career, I have worked in both health care (with both children and elderly individuals) and I have worked in retail, specifically loss prevention/security for many years. Throughout my working career, I have been fortunate to work with and interact with people of all ages and backgrounds, so many of which are different from my own. One thing that I look forward to learning about the most is prenatal and early childhood development. I do not have children yet and very few of my friends have babies or young children, so that is the age group that I am the least familiar with. I am also interested to see what has changed in this course over the last decade or so – I took this same class at a different school but that was almost 15 years ago so I am sure there will be plenty of new information to learn!
Stefanie
Posted:
4/3/2023
Discussion Post #1
Due: 4/5/2023
Prompt
Cohorts
: A goal of this course is to, as your textbook author says, have you start "thinking culturally." A first part of this is to reflect on who you are, in terms of your own cultural subparts--who are you, in terms of age, race, gender, ethnicity, SES, etc.? (Your author does a good job of modeling his own responses to these questions in the first pages of the textbook.) As another part of the "Who are you?" question, think about your cohort. Does your place in history influence how you define who you are? Which cohort do you belong to: the Baby Boomers (born 1946-1964) ; Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980), Generation Y (also called Millennials, Echo Boomers, or the iGeneration, 1981-1996), or Generation Z (1997-2011)? How do you define your generation and how different do you see yourself from those in earlier generations? After you submit your post, be sure to write and submit at least two in-depth responses to your classmates' main posts--you choose who to respond to.
(Required) For more information on the latest cohort to enter college at age 18 go to the "Mindset List" about first year college students. For
those of us who are a little older, it can be quite a surprise. Feel free to
add your insights to the discussion. Be sure to answer all parts of the question for full credit. Note: When the Mindset List talks about the "Class of 2023," they are referring to incoming college students, entering college in 2019, and who would be expected to graduate four
years later. Additionally, the Mindset List has now moved to Marist College, so the Mindset List for the class of 2023 is here: https://www.marist.edu/mindset-list
The Mindset Lists go back as far as 2002 (that is, people who at age 18 entered college in 1998). So, figure out what year your college graduating class would have been (if you graduated at age 22), then put in your browser the phrase "Mindset List class of_________." Don't be hesitant to check out the years for other graduating cohorts. Have fun!
Initial Post
I am a 33-year-old white cisgender female. I am married with no children currently. I have lived in the Pacific Northwest my whole life, mostly around the Portland area. I had a public school education and have completed both an associate’s degree and a bachelor’s degree. My family income and occupation places me in the middle class now, but growing up my family was considered working class and we lived in poverty at various times throughout my childhood. My core family unit consisted of my mom, stepfather, and two younger sisters. My parents loved us deeply and cared for us the best way they could, my childhood was still rather dysfunctional as my parents struggled with
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significant health issues, mental health struggles, and addiction. Both of my parents passed away at relatively early ages (my stepfather when I was 26 and my mother when I was 28) and as such I have grown even closer to my sisters as we are the last immediate family that any of us have, outside of spouses/in-laws.
I fall in the middle age range of the Generation Y/Millennial cohort. When I think of the Millennial cohort, I think of two major defining factors for our generation. One, we are individuals who are defined by a childhood that was cell phone/internet free, but quickly adapted to the rapid technology changes of our middle school/high school years. I
think that this dichotomy of knowing a life without cell phones and social media, as well as a life where those things are so intertwined with our daily lives, has made our generation able to embrace technology but in an almost resentful way where we are nostalgic for the “simpler life.” Economically, we came of age and graduated high school or college and entered the workforce during the financial crisis of 2008 which has placed many economical burdens on our generation
and resulted in a change in the typical adult pathway of graduating, getting a solidly paying full time job, getting married, buying a home, and so on, that our parent’s generations were able to do much more easily. Many, and sometimes none, of those milestones are feasible for
members of my generation and the generations to follow. I have been very fortunate and my husband and I have purchased a home, but my younger sister and her husband who are about eight years younger have not had the same opportunities even though they are incredibly hard working and financially responsible.
Though I feel that I do identify well with the Millennial cohort, my upbringing was unique and provided me with a deep connection with their generation, the Baby Boomers, in many ways.
Both of my parents were older than the parents of my peers, and both
came from working class families with both grandfathers working manual labor jobs such as logging and farming. It was instilled in me from an early age to work hard and never take a handout because we could make it on our own – I think some of this was carried over from what they learned from their parents after the Great Depression and World War II experiences. I appreciate the resilience I learned from my
parents, but I have also learned many characteristics and traits that I have done away with. For example, I now relate much more to the “work to live” mentality of the Millennial generation rather than the “live to work” mindset of my parent’s generation after watching my workaholic step-father over the years.
As we didn’t have much money during my childhood, many of my connections to cultural influences that define Millennials until after my
peers. My parents still had 8-track tapes and records, which many of my peers had never seen – and they listened to older music like Patsy Cline and Creedence Clearwater Revival. My parents would watch current TV shows, but they also spent a lot of time watching old reruns
of shows like MASH and Bonanza. None of my peers had similar experiences, so I felt like the odd one out until my early teens when we got internet and I was able to find things that interested me and were more culturally relevant to my peers.
I would have graduated in 2012 and I recognized most things on the list though only a few resonated with me specifically. One that I thought was funny was “IBM has never made typewriters” as I actually
had an old IBM typewriter that I would play on when I was a child. I found it interesting that most of the list consisted of cultural references or fun facts about karaoke, which was a stark contrast to the Mindset List for the Class of 2026 which discusses the impact of climate change, global conflict, and ethics. I try to remain optimistic for the future of our planet as well as this next generation, but it can be challenging when there seem to be so many obstacles to advancement.
Response #1
Posted: Karen,
I definitely agree with your perspective on the Baby Boomer generation being one of self-sufficiency and productivity. My parents were both late Baby Boomers and shared that same mindset. They worked hard for what they had, even if it wasn't very much. I also think that I have a great work ethic because of the examples in my family, but over the past few years I have found myself thinking differently about how I balance my drive to perform well at work with my personal and family life. I am curious if you have had similar thoughts or how you approach balancing that drive to work hard with other aspects of your life?
My step-father was always working, sometimes 16-hour days and was often not home to spend time with us as children. I found that with my
last job, I was working 10–12-hour days five (or sometimes six) days a week with most of that time spent sitting at a desk. Even though the pay was good, I decided to make a change and go back to school because the quality time I was missing out on with my spouse wasn't worth it. I work a much lower paying job now, but I am so much happier. I know that my parents would have ultimately supported my decision, but my step-father would absolutely have given me grief
about how that level of work is just what you are supposed to do when you have a job. I find it interesting that I have learned both so much about who I want to be and how I want to live my life from my parents – and I have learned just as much about how I do not
want to be from them too!
Thank you for sharing!
Stefanie
Response #2
Posted: Alissa,
You and I are very close in age and it sounds like we had similar experiences growing up. I find it interesting that you mentioned the feeling of connecting with Generation X better than Millennials. I agree with that feeling, though my parents were a little older so I may even be more connected to the Baby Boomer generation. My sisters and I also grew up in a working-class family and we went without many things as my parents struggled with money. I don't know if you would describe your experience the same way, but I think that we were almost culturally stunted, as our peers had internet, cell phones, cable, and so on long before we did. I definitely recall having to adapt and learn about “cool” things from other people so that I could pretend to be in the know to try to fit in with my peers.
I love how you ended your post! I agree that Millennials are highly diverse and adaptable, which are two characteristics that I pride myself on. I think that our generation is very comfortable analyzing the
past and learning from it. My parents (and grandparents) had the mentality that bad things happen and you suck it up and move on with
your life. Our generation is more able to have open conversations about recognizing bad or harmful experiences and making changes to break those generational cycles. I hope that ability to reflect and adapt
continues with the next generation and they use those skills to make improvements in the world, especially in light of all the challenges we are currently facing environmentally, politically, and so on.
Thank you for sharing!
Stefanie Posted:
4/3/2023
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Discussion Post #2
Due: 4/13/2023
Prompt
Genetics and Prenatal Development: Address one
topic from Chapter 2 that you find of specific interest to you--it could be infertility, teratogenic exposure, genetics, etc. You may find some ideas in the "Focus Questions" that are in LM2 in the Content section of the course. Compare what you read in Ch. 2 with what you know from other classes, other reading, and other knowledge that you have. What additional research-based information can you add to this discussion of heredity, environment, and prenatal development? Remember to cite text references (page numbers) and include the source of any additional material you include. Continue the discussion
by responding in-depth to the material presented by your classmates. (As I state in my Week Two Email, be sure that your main post is between 500-600 words in length.)
Initial Post
n the Arnett text, the authors state, “Males are more vulnerable to teratogens than females” (pg. 68). Unfortunately, they do not go into more detail regarding this statement. I sought out other research on what leads to the difference in the impact of teratogen exposure in males and found a literature review article which summarized numerous studies on the influence of prenatal drug exposure and offspring outcome. The authors provided a visual (Figure 1 in the article) that I found very helpful in visualizing the research they summarized as it is color-coded by gender and shows the impact of illicit drugs (cocaine, methamphetamine, opioids), tobacco, alcohol, and cannabis on the cognitive, behavioral, and ADHD risks during infancy, childhood, and adolescence. The review found that in the studies that examined gender, male offspring showed a greater risk of cognitive deficits than female offspring when exposed to nearly all examined teratogens, though the differences between genders decreased over time with age. Numerous factors were discussed as potential explanations for the difference, such as placenta structure and function, and socioeconomic and lifestyle differences, but more research is needed to identify and further define what leads to that gender difference (Francesco et al., 2020).
Additionally, the Arnett text and the article that I reviewed discuss the impact of maternal alcohol consumption on the developing offspring. Arnett states that heavy prenatal alcohol consumption results in a risk of the offspring developing fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) (pg. 70). FASD was new terminology to me as I have only heard of it referred to as fetal alcohol syndrome previously. I appreciate the change to acknowledging the impact of alcohol consumption during pregnancy as a spectrum. One single drink during pregnancy does not mean that the child will be have significant cognitive disfunction, but
can one or two drinks still have some form of cognitive or behavioral impact on the child as they develop? The teratogenic effects of alcohol
consumption during pregnancy are described as “dose-dependent” in several studies, which further emphasizes the spectrum aspect (Francesco et al., 2020). The information on FASD reminded me of a book that I read a few years ago called “Expecting Better: Why the Conventional Pregnancy Wisdom is Wrong—And What You Really Need to Know” by Dr. Emily Oster. Oster is a professor of economics and she examines studies regarding the many recommendations and “dos-and-don’ts” made for pregnant women. Throughout the book she discusses how she used that information to guide her personal decisions while pregnant, including alcohol consumption where she says that drinking one alcoholic drink per day was acceptable (Oster, 2018). I thought that the book was very interesting regarding the open discussion on the actual statistical risks behind pregnancy guidance, but the chapter on alcohol made me uncomfortable. Though Oster is clear that each person should examine the risks and make their own decision based on their comfort level, there are many studies that show the negative impact of alcohol consumption during pregnancy.
One thing that I can appreciate about books like Oster’s is that they take into consideration the mental wellbeing of the mother during pregnancy. If a mother is addicted to alcohol or even an illicit drug, can
the stress of withdrawals result in different kinds of risks to her offspring? What about prescription medications such as antidepressants that the mother needs to function – are the potential risks of the medications for the fetus worse than the risks for the mother going off of her medication? I think these are great discussions
to have within the scientific community and I am interested to see what studies are done in the future on this topic.
Stefanie
--- Citations
Francesco, T., Roberto, F., & Miriam, M. (2020). Gender differences in the outcome of offspring prenatally exposed to drugs of abuse.
Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00072
-
Oster, E. (2018). Expecting better: why the conventional pregnancy wisdom is wrong--and what you really need to know
(Updated edition). New York, Penguin Books.
Response #1
Posted: Gabbie,
I think that you bring up an interesting point at the end of your post where you mentioned that ARTs should be more accessible for all individuals, which I agree with. The statistics that you mentioned earlier in your post, with a large number of those exposed to fertility treatments being highly-educated, higher income, and white, shows that there is quite a bit of inequality in those utilizing the technology. The cost of the treatments is absolutely a barrier. One 2010 study, "
Costs of infertility treatment: Results from an 18-month prospective cohort study
," showed an 18-month median cost of $24,373 for infertility treatment. Additionally, as the article states, "Unlike many expensive medical treatments that are covered by health insurance, infertility treatment is usually paid for out of pocket, including an estimated 85% of IVF costs." The authors of the study also note that the sample was limited to northern California and the patients were mostly well-educated white women. The cost of ARTs is definitely prohibitive for many individuals, many of whom are going to be lower income, have less education, and are non-white. It is frustrating to know that there are individuals and/or couples who want to conceive and would make wonderful parents but will never have that option due to the cost. I think that some portion of ARTs being covered by health insurance would help provide more equality in access to ARTs, though that still alienates individuals without health insurance. I don't believe that I've seen many conversations on this topic before, and I know this is the first time that I have truly considered equality in access to fertility treatments. I plan on reading more about this, but my initial reaction is that, as someone who believes in reproductive rights, there should be greater access and less of a barrier for those who want to conceive to do so. Thank you for sharing and inspiring me
to look up more on this topic!
Response #2
Posted: Minseo,
Thank you for both the nice summary on the topic of infertility, as well as the personal experience you shared about your sister-in-law. I also found it interesting that the book mentioned relationships strengthening when the couple is experiencing infertility. Obviously that is a broad statement and won't apply to all situations, but I think that experience is highly dependent on both the individuals in the relationship and their cultural values. One article that I found, "
Multicultural Considerations in Infertility Counseling
," discusses the cultural influences on experiencing infertility that need to be
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considered during counseling. At one point, the author states, "... In the quintessential individualist country of the United States, depression levels of individuals going through infertility are similar to those with chronic illness such as cancer and HIV-positive status" (pg. 3). I have known many people who have or are currently struggling with infertility but seeing that comparison of the impact to such serious illnesses highlights how psychologically damaging the experience can be. It seems as though that open, honest conversations about infertility are still difficult to have and it can be incredibly isolating for those who are struggling to conceive. Before reading this article, I thought about infertility solely from the medical perspective of what can be done to address the issue so that couples can conceive if they choose to do so. However, there are many more psychological and cultural implications that need to be considered, and I think that seeking counseling could be beneficial for those struggling with infertility to help process their experience.
Posted:
4/15/2023
Discussio
n Post #3
Due: 4/20/2023
Prompt
Birth and the Newborn Child: Choose ONE of the following options. If you are able to watch one of the videos, include your comments on that as well. Remember to include text information with citations. If you know of other relevant, accurate, and applicable material feel free to include it. Option 1: Discuss issues and controversies surrounding breast versus bottle feeding, as well as the length of time infants should be breast-fed. Option 2: Why does the U.S. have a higher infant mortality rate than many other developed countries? What can be done about this problem in the U.S.? How do the causes of infant mortality differ between the developing countries and the developed countries? Option 3: Discuss your own experiences with the birthing process, or those of someone you know well. What are the cultural beliefs your family has about pregnancy and birth, and what beliefs did you hear when you were growing up? Option 4: Take any other topic from chapter 3 that really interests you, and expand on the topic with new research information from legitimate sources.
Initial Post
As stated in the Arnett and Jensen (2019) text, most instances of infant mortality take place in the neonatal period which is the first month after birth (p. 135). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the highest infant mortality rates are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia, and Southern Asia, which account for 79% of global newborn deaths (WHO, Newborn mortality
). UNICEF recommendations to reduce neonatal mortality in developing countries include having access to emergency hospital care, trained midwives or other medical personnel, and clean items for umbilical cord care present at all births (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 92). Increasing the access and quality of antenatal and postnatal care of mother and baby can help reduce these rates in developing countries (WHO, Newborn mortality
).
According to the CDC, in 2020 the U.S. infant mortality rate was 5.4 deaths per 1,000 live births. Infant mortality data from 2019 showed that the rate for non-
Hispanic Black infants was highest at 10.6 per 1,000 live births, followed by non-
Hispanic native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander at 8.2 per 1,000 and non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native at 7.9 per 1,000 live births. All other racial and ethnic groups were at or below the CDC target of 5 infant deaths per 1,000 live births (CDC, 2022). The primary causes of the higher infant mortality rate for Black infants are decreased health care access and higher poverty levels (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 92). This can be seen as the highest infant mortality rates in the U.S. are concentrated in the southern U.S., with Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas having the three highest rates. The CDC specifically cites birth defects, preterm birth, SIDS, injuries, and maternal pregnancy complications as the top five causes of infant mortality in the U.S. (CDC, 2022).
What is most frustrating about these statistics is that the U.S. is an outlier among
other developed countries. The U.S has not only the highest infant mortality rate compared to other developed countries, but also higher rates of obesity and chronic conditions, and shorter life expectancy – all while spending the highest percentage of GDP on health care than any other country. Though our spending is high, the quality of care is subpar and inequal with high costs to individuals, even with health insurance, and limited access to providers (Petrullo, 2023). One resource that I found particularly interesting is a position paper from the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) titled “Advancing Health Equity by Addressing the Social Determinants of Health in Family Medicine.” This source
is much too in-depth to discuss fully, but it provided great insight into how complicated the factors that go into infant mortality rates, as well as the overall health of a population, are. The visual in Figure 4 shows how social inequities and institutional inequities directly influence living conditions, which influence risk behaviors, which lead to increases in disease and injury, and subsequently increase infant mortality rates and decrease life expectancy. Of course, this is a gross oversimplification of the socioeconomic factors that influence these rates (AAFP, 2019). When we look specifically at the higher infant mortality rate and shorter life expectancy of Black Americans, we are looking at the results of systemic racism, both past and present. In order to improve infant mortality rates and overall life expectancy in the U.S., we need to take a multi-faceted approach. The most obvious solution is to increase access to health care so that all residents can seek health care without concern for the cost. In 2021, 8.6% of Americans had no health insurance, while nearly all other developed countries provide health coverage to all residents (Petrullo, 2023). However, there also needs to be action taken at the governmental level to enact policies that address the social and institutional inequities that result in socioeconomic barriers that impact public health. Citations
American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP). (2019, December 12). Advancing
Health Equity by addressing the Social Determinants of health in Family Medicine
(position paper)
. AAFP. Retrieved April 19, 2023, from https://www.aafp.org/about/policies/all/social-determinants-health-family-
medicine-position-paper.html Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
(3rd
ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2022, June 22). Infant mortality
. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved April 19, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/infantmortality.h
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tm Petrullo, J. (2023, January 31). US has highest infant, maternal mortality rates despite the most health care spending
. AJMC. Retrieved April 19, 2023, from https://www.ajmc.com/view/us-has-highest-infant-maternal-mortality-rates-
despite-the-most-health-care-spending# World Health Organization (WHO). (n.d.). Newborn mortality
. World Health Organization. Retrieved April 19, 2023, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/levels-and-trends-in-child-
mortality-report-2021 Response
#1
Posted: Thomas,
I agree with your sentiment that breastfeeding versus formula feeding is a loaded
question! Many of the conversations around pregnancy are, which can be very frustrating as a woman as so many of the conversations center around what other people dictate is best for you and your body without consideration for physical limitations or personal autonomy. For some parents, breastfeeding is not
a choice due to physical ability or circumstance, and others may make the choice that it is not right for them. Personally, I am strongly of the opinion that a fed and
nourished baby is best, whether that is breast milk or formula. Your post made me curious about what specifically provides the immunity benefit of breastfeeding. I also recall the IgA antibodies present in breast milk from microbiology and anatomy, but we did not dig in farther than that in either class. I found an article from 2021 that summarized research done by the University of Birmingham in the U.K. The research found that infants who were breastfed had two times as many regulatory T cells in the first three weeks of life when compared to formula fed babies. Breastfed babies also had higher levels of bacteria that support regulatory T cell functions (University of Birmingham, 2021). Another research article that I found showed a connection between diet, gut microbiota, and regulatory T cell function, stating that “…the adoption of a western diet may underlie the increasing incidence of inflammatory diseases such as autoimmunity, allergies, and inflammatory bowel disease in western countries” (Tan et al., 2022). This article also acknowledged that there may be an impact from the maternal nutrition and gut microbiota during gestation that affects later immune system functioning in later life (Tan et al., 2022).
Fortunately, there are many options of well-rounded and functionally nutritious formulas for babies today, which I am sure will continue to improve as more studies are done. Of course, breastfeeding should be encouraged, but we should still acknowledge that it is not the answer for all parents, and no parent should feel shame or guilt if they formula feed their baby.
Thank you for sharing!
Stefanie
Citations
Tan, J., Taitz, J., Sun, S. M., Langford, L., Ni, D., & Macia, L. (2022). Your regulatory T cells are what you eat: How diet and gut microbiota affect regulatory T cell development. Frontiers in Nutrition
, 9
. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.878382 University of Birmingham. (2021, January 14). New insight into why breastfed babies have improved immune systems.
ScienceDaily
. Retrieved April 18, 2023 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/01/210114111912.htm
Response
#2
Posted: Rachael,
I like that you chose a different topic to mix things up! This is a really interesting topic to me as well, though I do not have children of my own yet. I am a little older so some of my friends have children and I've seen them navigate through their parenting choices, and I am a few years older than my sisters so I can recall their infancy. Because of that, I have spent time thinking about how I would handle that stage where babies seem to cry for no reason. I also am not a fan of the cry it out method and don’t plan on using that method when I have my own children, but as someone who gets overstimulated by loud noises and constant touch at times, I know that I will struggle with balancing self-care and soothing my babies.
The section in the text about colic also reminded me of when my sister was a baby and she had colic. She would cry for hours on end and it was such a stressful experience for my parents and even me as a child. As the authors wrote, the inconsolable crying is a risk factor for the child to be mistreated by their parent. I can absolutely understand how that experience can push someone to the breaking point if they do not have good coping mechanisms and a support system in place (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, pp. 116-117). As you said in your post, and the authors wrote in the text, there is not definitive
proof that one method is better than another, or that there is a detrimental impact to either response to crying (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p 115). I did a search to see if there were any studies that provided additional information. One article
titled, “To have and to hold: Effects of physical contact on infants and their caregivers,” summarized the findings of several studies. The studies show that infant physical contact is important for healthy long-term development. Links were shown between infant physical contact with their caregivers and increased social and emotional responsiveness, more secure attachments, and less stress-
related behaviors for the infants. Most of the studies referenced were published
within the last few years and there is a need for further research on the long-
term impact of the amount of parental-infant physical contact, but there seems to be preliminary research that supports holding and soothing an infant rather than crying it out (Bigelow & Williams, 2020).
One last tidbit that I found surprising from that article was this statement: “Close
body contact between infants and their caregivers has historically been the norm. Yet in Western societies, infants are in body contact with their caregivers about 18% of the day compared to 79–99% of the day in many non-Western societies (Bigelow & Williams, 2020).” I did not think there was such a large disparity in those numbers!
Thank you for the interesting topic to consider!
Stefanie
Citations
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
(3rd
ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. Bigelow, A. E., & Williams, L. R. (2020). To have and to hold: Effects of physical contact on infants and their caregivers. Infant Behavior and Development
, 61
, 101494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101494 Posted:
4/19/23
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Discussion Post #4
Due: 4/27/2023
Prompt
The First 3 years. THIS WEEK you will choose your Discussion based on the Focus Questions found in Learning Module #4. Choose from the list of Focus Questions--something you are especially interested in. You
can also address a question related to these topics, or you can address
another topic from Chapters 4 and 5 that may not have been addressed by a focus question. Make sure that your posts and responses reflect your reading and thinking. You can also use the video
as a starting point for discussion. IMPORTANT: Use the Subject line to identify the content of your question. This way subsequent readers can choose to answer your post based on subject. A final point: As I am sure you have experienced, discussions about infancy and toddlerhood can often generate intense emotions in people. I urge you to keep your posts and responses more "academic" and "measured" in emotional tone. Feel free to include your opinions along with your research, but this is one of those weeks when I have learned that civility is especially important!
Initial Post
According to the Arnett and Jensen text, the “Red Spot” test is an experiment conducted by Lewis and Brooks-Gunn that was used to test toddlers at which age they are first capable of self-recognition, or the ability to recognize themselves in a mirrored reflection. The toddlers were discreetly marked on their nose with a red pen and presented with a mirror to see how they would react. The researchers found that younger infants of 9-months and 12-months of age reached
out to the mirror as if they were reaching out to another child, but those who were nearer to 18-months old wiped their own face showing that they understood the reflection was of them (Arnett & Jensen, p. 199). Before Lewis and Brooks-Gunn’s experiment in the late 1970s, Gordon Gallup Jr. developed the mirror mark, or mirror self-recognition, test which was used to assess self-conceptualization in chimpanzees. Gallup’s experiment involved captive chimpanzees. He placed mirrors in their cages and observed their behavior as it went from initially aggressive toward the reflection, to the chimpanzees examining themselves. He then furthered the experiment by anesthetizing the chimpanzees, marking them with a red dot, and watching how they reacted. The chimpanzees examined their spots and Gallup concluded that this was proof of the chimpanzees’ ability to conceptualize themselves as individuals. In the years since his initial experiment, Gallup states that only three species have passed the mirror test: chimpanzees, orangutans, and humans – though many other scientists
and researchers disagree (Crair, 2023).
I found many other claims of animals that have been reported to have passed the mirror test. One list, which appears to include the animals most cited as passing the test, included: Asian elephants, bonobos, chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, bottlenose dolphins, orca whales, Eurasian magpies, and ants (Animal Cognition, 2016). However, other sources contradict this information and say that none of these animals
have truly been proven to have passed the test. More recent experiments have brought about questions regarding how applicable the information gained from the mirror test truly is to understanding animal self-awareness. A researcher named Alex Jordan conducted a form of the mirror test on a specific species of fish, the cleaner-wrasse,
and found that when the fishes throats were marked that they appeared to notice that change in the mirror and began scratching themselves on the sand. (Crair, 2023). Self-recognition is inherently easier to assess and understand in humans with our advanced communication skills when compared to other species. However, I am curious how much of what we understand about humans through the red spot or mirror tests can truly be applied to other animals. What about animals that are not as visual as humans and cannot interact with a mirror? How can we really
know what the animals are thinking when they interact with the mirror? We can interpret their interactions as self-recognition based on what we know of humans, but is that a fair correlation to make or are we extrapolating our sense of self onto these animals? This topic made me think of a very anecdotal and non-academic source, Bunny the talking dog, whose videos show her appearing to successfully communicate with her owners using push buttons that speak individual words. One video even shows her owner’s attempt at an informal mirror test (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=3OsonwtZI64
). Thinking of a dog, or any animal, understanding themselves with the depth that humans do is fascinating.
Though the research on animals and self-recognition is still evolving, the fact that the age that human children begin interacting with themselves in the mirror is linked to other signs of understanding their
sense of self, such as using their own name and personal pronouns further proves that we do develop self-recognition around 18 months of age (Arnett & Jensen, p. 199). I am interested to see what research continues to discover in the world of animal self-awareness.
Citations:
Animal Cognition. (2016, October 29). List of animals that have passed
the mirror test
. Animal Cognition. Retrieved April 28, 2023, from http://www.animalcognition.org/2015/04/15/list-of-animals-
that-have-passed-the-mirror-test/
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
. Pearson Education, Inc. Crair, B. (2023, April 14). The Mirror Test Is Broken. The Atlantic
. Retrieved April 28, 2023, from https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2023/04/fish-mirrors-
animal-cognition-self-awareness-science/673718/. Response #1
Posted: Nicholas,
Thank you for your post! I think you added great detail from the Mayo Clinic on the rates and tips for prevention of SIDS.
I found this topic interesting as we just covered the respiratory system in my anatomy and physiology course. Similarly to what was covered in the Arnett and Jensen textbook, my professor mentioned that one possible explanation for SIDS is that some infants may have a malfunctioning of the dorsal respiratory group in the brainstem. According to my anatomy textbook, Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function by Kenneth Saladin, the dorsal respiratory group is involved in regulating the basic respiratory rhythm, especially in response to variable conditions. In class, we discussed how a possible explanation for SIDS is something causes apnea in the infant and the dorsal respiratory group malfunctions, either by not receiving and processing a signal or not transmitting an appropriate to the signal, and the infant stops breathing. I also found an article released by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) from 2014 that summarized research which found that of their sample of 153 infants who died of SIDS, 41.2% had an abnormality of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus, which the researchers believe may be connected to heart and breathing malfunction. I thought it was interesting that this abnormality is similar to findings of individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy. The article also mentioned previous research on many infants
who had died of SIDS having low serotonin levels, which is a key regulator of homeostatic elements such as blood pressure and heart rate, respiration, temperature regulation, and sleeping/waking.
It is amazing what the research on SIDS has discovered so far, but we still have a long way to go to pinpoint the cause in a way that we can prevent instances of SIDS before they occur. There are absolutely recommendations for safe sleep that can and should be followed, but I'm sure it is scary for parents to think about doing everything right
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and still experiencing such a tragic loss. Stefanie
Sources:
https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/brain-abnormality-
found-group-sids-cases
Response #2
Posted: Rachael,
Thank you for your post on early brain development! It is absolutely fascinating how many changes take place in the infant and toddler brain. One of my favorite things about taking psychology courses like this one or science classes like anatomy and physiology is gaining a better understanding of how the brain works. It was very interesting to
read about synaptic pruning and plasticity in the Arnett and Jensen textbook (pg. 129) and relate that information to examples like the children in the Romanian orphanage, though it is so incredibly heartbreaking to think of how much emotional and cognitive damage was done to those children due to a lack of nurturing from a caregiver. I am happy to see more in-depth discussions and research on the impact of negative experiences during infancy and childhood, as well as resources to encourage positive development to prevent the long term impacts of toxic stress. The US Department of Health and Human
Services (HHS) states, "A toxic stress response can occur when a child experiences strong, frequent, and/or prolonged adversity without enough adult support. Children are unable to effectively manage this type of stress by themselves. As a result, the stress response system is activated for a prolonged amount of time. This can lead to permanent changes in the development of the brain causing psychological and physical damage." I think that many people believe that because infants and toddlers typically do not remember anything from their early years that those experiences are not as formative as the ones they do remember later in childhood. However, research shows that early brain development is
just as critical and negative experiences can literally shape the formation and synaptic connections of the brain, starting the toxic stress process and altering an individual for life. The CDC has lots of great public health information on these topics, such as one article I found titled "Early Brain Development and Health" which reinforces methods that caregivers can use to reinforce positive learning and development from infancy onward. Another article/infographic from the CDC titled "We Can Prevent Childhood Adversity" provides helpful
information on childhood adversity and how to prevent the long-term impacts of toxic stress, though it is tailored toward slightly older children. These resources are great informational pieces to keep in mind as many of us enter the health care field and interact with patients who are in the caregiver role for children. Stefanie
Sources: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ecd/child-health-development/early-
adversity
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/early-brain-
development.html
https://vetoviolence.cdc.gov/apps/aces-infographic/home
Posted:
Discussio
n Post #5
Due: 5/4/2023
Prompt
For this week, I have posted a number of (what I hope are) stimulating questions relating to the assigned reading material. You will find these Focus Questions listed in Learning Module #5. Find a question that you think is relevant/interesting for you. When you post, remember to put the specific question in the subject line of the post. Also, in your post, refer to material in the
chapters that related to the question you are addressing--be sure to identify the page #s from the book that contain the relevant information that you are referencing. Be sure to include information from other sources and websites, and be sure to list those references as well. Also remember to post at least two responses (in some depth) to other people's posts. Enjoy!
Initial Post
As covered in the textbook, child maltreatment consists of the abuse and/or neglect of children which falls into four categories: physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect. Physical abuse is behavior that causes physical harm to a child such as hitting, shaking, burning, and so on. Physical abuse is the most widely researched. Emotional abuse is behavior that causes emotional damage to children, such as manipulation and ridicule. Sexual abuse is any kind of sexual contact with a minor. Neglect involves failing to meet the basic needs of
a child such as food, clothing, shelter, medical care, and attention (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 259).
The risk factors for physical abuse fall into characteristics of the children and those of the parents. Research has shown that children who are temperamentally difficult, aggressive, or active are more often victims of physical
abuse. Risk factors for parents that may lead to physical abuse include socioeconomic stresses such as poverty and unemployment, and single motherhood. Research has shown a correlation between spousal abuse and child
abuse and that stepfathers are more likely to physically abuse a child than their biological father. About one-third of parents who abuse their children were also abused by their own parents (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 259).
Physical abuse causes social and emotional developmental challenges, interfering
with the child's self-development and ability to trust and build relationship with others. School performance is often negatively impacted by behavior problems and low motivation. All of these developmental problems can continue into adolescence and adulthood (Arnett & Jensen, p. 259).
One publication I found from the American Academy of Pediatrics summarized a 40-year longitudinal study that involved more than 7,200 children. Their findings were that of the 7.1% of the children who experienced abuse, more than half experienced more than one of the four forms. Abuse and neglect were both linked to long-term negative impacts on education and employment outcomes and sexual health outcomes such as youth pregnancy, and physical health such as
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obesity and high fat intake. What I found most interesting were their findings regarding emotional abuse and neglect. Emotional abuse was linked to increased
anxiety, depression, PTSD, psychosis, delinquency in men, and experiencing intimate partner violence. Interestingly, the researchers stated that the only abuse types linked to a significant decrease in quality-of-life scores were emotional abuse and neglect (Strathearn et al., 2020).
Arnett and Jensen cite examples of children being removed from their homes in cases of physical abuse, both informally with family in developing countries and formally through the legal system in developed countries (Arnett & Jensen, 2019,
p. 259). One example of a successful preventative program is the Nurse-Family Partnership, where nurses regularly visit pregnant mothers who have high risk factors for abuse, providing information on social services and how to handle difficult life and parenting situations. These visits continue through age two for the child (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 260). The AAP research also supports the fact
that early intervention and prevention is critical to reducing rates of abuse and neglect.
As someone who experienced emotional abuse and neglect as a child, I can attest to the long-lasting impacts. Among other issues, my parents both struggled with emotional regulation and communication. They often involved my
sisters and I in their fights and overshared about the crises they were facing. We all learned from an early age that we needed to act more like adults than children to compensate. My sisters and I all struggle with anxiety and depression,
though we have all invested time and effort in understanding the root causes and
improving ourselves. I understand now that my parents were mirroring the learned behaviors from their own childhoods. Understanding that has helped me
identify those learned behaviors in myself so that I do not continue on that cycle in my own relationships, or when I am a parent in the future. I think that early intervention for all children and parents who are at high risk of any of the abuse forms is critical to breaking the cyclical continuation of abuse.
Stefanie
Citations: Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
. Pearson Education, Inc. Strathearn, L., Giannotti, M., Mills, R., Kisely, S., Najman, J., & Abajobir, A. (2020).
Long-term cognitive, psychological, and health outcomes associated with Child abuse and neglect. Pediatrics
, 146
(4). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-0438
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Response #1
Posted: Danielle,
Thank you for covering this interesting topic! Reflecting on my childhood, I know that both of my parents struggled with emotional regulation as adults. As I grew up, I was almost the exact opposite in that I keep my emotions too regulated as I was always trying to counter the intensity of my parents. I have unlearned and worked through many of those behaviors and habits, but this is one aspect of raising a child that I want to try to get right when I have children of my own.
I found so many different resources on this topic that I could go on for hours... I am a little sad that I didn't choose this as my topic for the week! One article produced by OPRE (Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation for the US Department of Health and Human Services), Duke, and UNC-Chapel Hill gives great information on the processes of self-regulation development alongside recommendations for how caregivers can help foster the child's development of self-regulation skills at different ages and stages of development. I appreciated how the article explained the general markers of self-regulation in infancy, as toddlers, and in early childhood, but explained the different factors that can impact the individual child, such as temperament. The article also describes the process of helping a child develop their own self-regulation as "co-regulation" with their caregiver, stating that caregivers can foster co-regulation by ensuring a positive and responsive relationship with the child, providing a structured environment, and modeling and teaching self-regulation skills. One statement in particular stuck out to me: "Caregiver capacity for co-regulation depends on the caregiver’s own self-regulation skills." It is definitely a good reminder to continue working on my own emotional capabilities to ensure that I can model positive behaviors for the children in my life!
One more article from the same group that I have to share links back to other studies that I looked at for previous weeks. The article is titled, "How Do Acute and Chronic Stress Impact the Development of Self-Regulation?" This is a literature review of 394 studies that summarizes the impact of toxic stress on self-regulation. This article discusses self-regulation and how it relates to parenting styles, child maltreatment, and provides recommendations for early childhood interventions to address the negative impacts of toxic stress. Stefanie
Promoting Self-Regulation in the First Five Years: A Practice Brief (
https://fpg.unc.edu/sites/fpg.unc.edu/files/resources/reports-and-policy-
briefs/PromotingSelf-RegulationIntheFirstFiveYears.pdf
)
How Do Acute and Chronic Stress Impact the Development of Self-Regulation? (
https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/6_brainlogo_508.
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pdf
)
Response #2
Posted: Soo,
Thank you for sharing your family's experience with finding the right preschool fit
for your son. I am glad to hear that you have found the right fit for him after all of
the trial and error. I do not have children yet, though we are planning on it at some point. I also plan on continuing to work after having children, so thinking about childcare and pre-K has already happened for us. It is hard not to be stressed with so many options and opinions about what is the best solution, but I
always try to keep in mind that every child and every family is different. What fits
for one will not fit for all. I have heard of the Montessori approach from several friends who have children, but I never fully understood what that approach meant until reading more about it from our textbook and doing a little more research online. One takeaway that I had from reading this chapter is how fortunate many of us are to have options, both in terms of the number of programs in a given area that are accessible and in what we are able to afford. There is a huge gap in accessibility that more negatively impacts low-income families and children of color, especially Hispanic and African American children. I found the study from NIEER that was cited in the NPR article was incredibly eye opening in highlighting the achievement gap between income and race/ethnicity and how universal pre-
K can help make access to early childhood education more equitable. I already tend to support most programs that provide greater access to what I consider the basics - food, housing, health care, education, and so on. Both the NPR article you shared and the study itself helped solidify my support for universal pre-K and gives some great statistics to support my point when discussing with others who may not agree.
Stefanie
https://nieer.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/NIEER-AchievementGaps-
report.pdf
Posted:
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Discussio
n Post #6
Due: 5/11/2023
Prompt
Middle Childhood:
This age group is a course in itself. :) You can start with one of the Focus Questions in Learning Module #6 or pose your own related question. Remember to include the page reference(s) for your question. Find and post at least one reputable, scientific web site that has information on your question. Do not use Wikipedia (simply because it is overused). If you work with children in this age group share your experience with one of the Unit's topics. If you view the F.A.T. City video (strongly recommended) comment on that as well.
As covered on pages 319-320, describe the four categories of Social Status/Popularity, and the predictions of adolescent/adult outcomes of children in each category. Do these categories make sense to you, and are there any other
categories of "popularity" you would add? Which category do you recall being in during your own middle childhood? For you, did that category extend into your own adolescence? Add any other of your observations about this topic.
Initial Post
When children all around the same age are grouped together, such as in school settings, they tend to group their peers into four categories – popular children, rejected children, neglected children, and controversial children – based on social
status, or whether the child is liked or disliked by their peers. Children's social status ranking are most highly impacted by their social skills, which are defined as "behaviors that include being friendly, helpful, cooperative, and considerate" (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 319). Popular children are ranked as liked by a majority
of their peers with few ratings of being disliked. Rejected children are the opposite and are rated as disliked by most peers and liked by only a few. Neglected children are often forgotten by their peers and are not ranked as liked or disliked. Controversial children often receive similar rankings of liked and disliked by their peers (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 319).
Popular children typically have stronger social skills which results in positive interactions with their peers. Intelligence, physical appearance, and athletic ability also factor into the perception of children as popular. Rejected children tend to struggle with emotional regulation and self-control, resulting in conflict with others. Social information processing is a challenge for rejected children, causing them to negatively view peer behavior resulting in further conflict. Neglected children are typically competent in social skills, though they may be less social than other peers. Controversial children share characteristics of both popular and rejected children, with both high social skills and aggressiveness that
attracts some peers and deters others (Arnett and Jensen, 2019, pp. 319-320). Social statuses can influence future development through a developmental cascade, where one problem at a given point in life results in a series of further problems over time. This is especially true for rejected children as their exclusion from other children results in an inability to further develop the social skills needed to interact with their peers in a more socially accepted manner (p. 320).
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I think that there is a balance to strike between creating too many and too few categories to classify social status, but the four listed in the textbook seemed too broad to me. I found another source from Lumen Learning that cites a 1988 study
from Coie and Dodge, who are cited throughout this section in our textbook. Here, the term sociometric status is used instead of social status. The same four categories are used with the addition of an average group for those children who fall in the middle of all other categories. The rejected category is also more clearly defined as aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected to differentiate between those with aggressive behaviors versus socially withdrawn children (Lumen Learning, 2020). As this is based on older studies, perhaps there is a specific reason that Arnett and Jensen, along with other researchers, focus on only four groups, but I still think that broadening the categorical options slightly is beneficial.
One interesting study I found, “The Academic Lives of Neglected, Rejected, Popular, and Controversial Children” discussed the academic performance and perception of children in sixth and seventh grade in relation to their sociometric status. This study found that neglected children were favored by teachers as self-
regulated learners and were more motivated, while aggressive rejected children had more negative academic experiences (Wentzel & Asher, 1995).
As I was initially reading through this section, I did not feel like I could categorize myself into any of these groups, until I read Arnett and Jensen’s description of the neglected child and the findings of Wentzel and Asher’s study on the academic performance of neglected children. I was more reserved as a child and preferred to spend my time reading and doing solo activities to spending time with peers, though I had the social skills to get along with most others. I was the student who regularly got comments like, “She is a joy to have in class” on my report card. We moved to a small town when I was in middle school so that forced me to branch out and make new friends. Since the school was small, everyone knew one another and there was quite a bit of cross over between social groups. Reflecting on my middle school and high school experience, I still fell into the neglected child category, but I still had an overall positive experience as I did well in school and had a core group of friends throughout.
Citations:
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
. Pearson Education, Inc. Lumen Learning (2020). Adolescent Psychology
. Lumen Learning. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/adolescent/chapter/sociom
etric-peer-status/.
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Wentzel, K. R., & Asher, S. R. (1995). The academic lives of neglected, rejected, popular, and controversial children. Child Development
, 66
(3), 754. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131948 Response
#1
Posted: Alex,
Thank you for the informative post! Media use for children is such a complicated and rapidly evolving topic. As a millennial, I clearly remember the "before times" when we only had Disney VHS tapes to watch as children and my parents would just unplug the VCR and tell us to go read or play outside and it was that easy. That transition to having the internet and exposure that it brought was slow because technology was evolving at a pace that was more appropriate relative to my developmental level, though there was still some exposure to things that I probably shouldn't have seen in even my teenage years. During my middle childhood years, my mom did a good job screening TV, movies, and books for me.
I remember picking out books at the store and asking if I could read. If she questioned anything, she would read the book first and either save it for later or give me the okay. Now it is a whole other world with the sheer volume of media that is available constantly. As you also mentioned, I did appreciate that the textbook highlighted that media use can be valuable for children if it is light or moderate usage and they are viewing prosocial content (Arnett & Jensen, p. 323). There is so much value in being exposed to other viewpoints, cultures, and experiences outside of your own. But it is also so easy to be overly consumed by negative material in media as well. For children who have other factors that may negatively impact their development and mental health, those negative impacts can be amplified.
I found an interesting post from ACPC Psychology in Australia that summarized several sources regarding the impacts of YouTube on children and adolescents. It discusses some of the violent material like you mention in your post, including how some creators intentionally create disturbing material and circumvent filters through using popular children's characters. The post also discusses how the weaknesses in the content filters on YouTube have been used by some groups to radicalize children, specifically young, white males. It is disturbing to think about the manipulation tactics being used on children. Two statistics the post cited were fascinating to me - One, that 400 hours of new material are uploaded to YouTube every minute, and two, that one study found it took only 13 clicks on related videos to get from a legitimate children's video to disturbing content involving children's characters. There is no way to screen every YouTube video, or
to watch your child every second of the day to ensure that they are not accessing
media that could be harmful for them. Parents definitely need to take a proactive
approach in being involved in the media their children are consuming, as well as keep an open dialogue with their children about how to handle if they see something that is traumatizing or harmful to others.
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Stefanie
https://www.acpcpsychology.com.au/blogDetail.php?You-Tube-The-Good-The-
Bad-and-the-Ugly-48
Response
#2
Posted: Karen,
First, thank you for sharing your personal experiences. I had similar experiences in my own childhood and have struggled with my weight for my entire life, so I know that it can be challenging to talk about at times. I admire your focus on making changes so that you can be the healthiest version of yourself that you can
be!
You provided a great summary of the textbook material and I appreciate the information regarding the socioeconomic factors that play a role in obesity. I often think back to a book that I read called In Defense of Food by Michael Pollan
where he summarizes how to eat healthy as, "Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants." I read that book for a nutrition class and it provided some great material for me to consider, and I do agree - that would make for a healthier diet and lifestyle than most live. However, I remember thinking about how that is a nice concept on paper, but it does not play out in real life for most individuals. We often did not have enough money for food during my childhood, so we bought a lot of processed foods and few fresh fruits and vegetables. I learned basic cooking skills, but nothing about nutrition and making healthy choices with food. When I read that book, I was 18, in college, working full time, and renting a room
in a house because I didn't make enough money to live on my own. I survived off of $1.00 Taco Bell burritos and corn dogs from Safeway because I didn't have the knowledge, time, or sufficient space to prepare healthy meals, let alone afford healthy meats or produce. Similar to your experience, all of that was further compounded by unresolved trauma and untreated anxiety and depression. I know it can be so challenging to work through the challenging emotions and find the willpower to make the right choices for both your mental and physical well-
being. It sounds like you have made great progress and I wish nothing but further
success for you!
One other aspect of this section that I found interesting was the Cultural Focus section on page 280 which talked about the FTO gene and its role in obesity. I had not heard of this gene or the information from the studies on it before. I found a study from 2008 that was conducted with Scottish children aged 4 to 10 years of age. Similar to the information in the textbook, this study also cited a connection between the FTO gene and increased energy intake rather than energy output. It seems like more studies on this are needed, and I would be interested to see research on possible connections between those with this gene and eating disorders, such as binge eating disorder, which I have struggled with
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at various points in my life.
Thank you again for sharing your thoughts and experiences with us!
Stefanie https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmoa0803839
Posted:
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Discussion Post #7
Due: 5/18/2023
Prompt
Adolescence
: This week, choose one of the options below to post. Remember to put your question or topic on the Subject line. OPTION 1: Interview a Teen: Find a teen you think might be willing to be interviewed. Plan your interview carefully. Write out several questions that you want to ask from material in these chapters. Use your discretion to ask questions that would be suitable. In your initial post include some of your interview questions and answers tied to the appropriate material in the text (remember to include page #s). Then respond as usual to your classmates. OPTION 2: Choose one of the topics from the chapter on Adolescence (Chapter 8), or one of the Focus Questions in LM #7 from Chapter 8. Go online to find more information on the topic (of course using only reputable web sites). Share your additional information and compare it with the text material on the subject. OPTION 3: Watch a video on teen development and compare that with
the text material, compare and contrast, cite text pages. Some in the PCC Library: Inside the Teenage Brain; Reviving Ophelia : Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls; The Secret Life of the Brain: The Teen Years;
and others. Let me know if you find others that are good.
Initial Post
Arnett and Jensen describe a depressed mood as a short-term feeling of sadness without any of the other symptoms that are characteristic of depression. This differs from major depressive disorder, which is a clinical diagnosis that is characterized by long-term periods of sadness along with other symptoms such as a lack of appetite, insomnia, and generalized fatigue. Studies show that approximately 3% to 7% of adolescents are diagnosed with major depressive disorder, which is similar to the rates found in adults. However, adolescents have significantly higher rates of depressed moods compared to adults, with one Dutch study finding that 27% of 11-year-old females and 21%
of 11-year-old males experienced depressed moods. This study also showed an increase with age as 37% of 19-year-old females and 23% of 19-year-old males experiencing depressed moods (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 380).
The textbook cites one of the major risk factors of depression in both adolescence and adulthood is being female. This is supported by the findings of the Dutch study which saw a 10% increase in depressive moods in females between age 11 to 19 versus a 2% increase for males of the same age groups. Some possible reasonings for the difference are struggles with body image in females, the tendency of females to ruminate on depressive feelings rather than distract themselves as males tend to do, and sadness and distrust linked to relationships (Arnett & Jensen, 2019, p. 381). A publication I found
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from the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) cited a longer
list of risk factors that were categorized into biologic, psychological, and environmental factors. Two risk factors that I found interesting were sweetened beverage consumption and recreational screen time of more than two hours a day (Selph & McDonagh, 2019).
The two primary treatments for major depressive disorder are antidepressant medications and psychotherapy, with the most effective approach being a combination of the two. One study cited by
Arnett and Jensen found that 71% of adolescents who were treated with both Prozac and psychotherapy reported an improvement in symptoms, more than antidepressants or psychotherapy alone, or receiving a placebo. One risk factor of antidepressant use in adolescents in an increase in suicidal thoughts and aggressive behaviors, so parents, adolescents, and health care providers must work together to determine the best course of treatment (p. 381). According to the AAFP, the current recommendation is to provide supportive care for six to eight weeks in cases of mild depression before moving to medication and/or psychotherapy use. In cases of persistent mild depression or moderate to severe depression, the clinical recommendation is antidepressant medication along with cognitive behavioral therapy (Selph & McDonagh, 2019).
One adolescent I know who has struggled with major depressive disorder is my younger sister. She first began showing signs and symptoms of depression around 11 or 12 years old with large mood swings and significant periods of sadness. As she went through middle school and started high school, she self-harmed and talked about suicide, though she thankfully did not make any attempts (that I am aware of). She began drinking and smoking, both cigarettes and pot, skipping school, and so on, which seemed to further the swings her moods. During this time, she started seeing a therapist and taking antidepressants which helped, but she was inconsistent in her follow through so she still had ups and downs. Later in high school for her, both of my parents passed away and that exacerbated the problem. She went through a several year period of manic episodes where she would be highly impulsive and hyperactive to lows of depression where she wouldn't leave her room for days. At times she would get back on medication and go to therapy, but she would stop her treatment and the significant mood swings would return. In the last year, she has really worked on herself and made some big improvements. She was diagnosed with bipolar disorder, returned to therapy, and started on medications again. She has focused on cutting out the more negative influences and no longer uses some of the
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harder recreational drugs she did across the years. She still struggles with binge drinking and maintaining the routines that help her stay well mentally, but she is much more self-aware and in a healthier place. From the outside perspective, I still know that she has a long road of challenges ahead of her, but I am so relieved to see her in a better place now than she has been in the last 10 years or so.
Stefanie
Citations:
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
. Pearson Education, Inc. Selph, S. S., & McDonagh, M. S. (2019). Depression in Children and Adolescents: Evaluation and Treatment. American family physician, 100(10), 609–617.
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Discussion Post #8
Due: 5/25/2023
Prompt
The fundamental question to be addressed in this week's discussion is "What does it mean to become an adult?" Refer to both chapter 9 on "Emerging Adulthood" and chapter 10 on "Young Adulthood" when forming your ideas. When I teach this section in the classroom I ask for a show of hands of those who identify themselves as "adult." It's interesting how reluctant many of us are to identify ourselves as adults. Why? Is adulthood the end of fun and the beginning of life as work and drudgery? What do you think? And in what ways do you think that the concept of "adulthood" has changed and become more fluid over the last 20-30 years? Next I ask what it means to be an adult. The responses are often fascinating. It seems that many quite young students are very "adult." Conversely, we all know someone who will never "grow up." What do you think? Compare your initial thoughts with passages from the text and cite page numbers (as usual). Be sure to share your own evolution into adulthood as part of your reflection on this week's topic.
Initial Post
I consider myself an adult, though I have only come to embrace that title within the last few years. One of the examples that Arnett and Jensen use in comparing cultural differences in defining adulthood is that the US and Europe view financial independence as a marker of adulthood, while Asian countries view adults as those who are capable
of caring for their parents (pg. 391). I began working and supporting myself at the age of 18, reaching full financial independence at 21. However, I would not have considered myself an adult at either age. I think part of what makes the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood so challenging is that you spend your teen years thinking about how different things will be once you are an adult. I remember thinking there was something magic about the age 18, since that is the
legal marker for adulthood. Then on my 18th birthday, I woke up and went to high school, just like I did every other day when I was 17. Nothing changed in me that reflected adulthood. I thought maybe college was the key difference. Then I started college that fall and quickly learned that if anything, I felt like I was even less like an adult. Next was 21, being able to drink legally. Again, I still felt like a child who had earned a new privilege, like getting to go to bed at 9 PM instead of 8 PM as a kid. I started my first full time job at 23, bought a house with my husband (then fiancé) at 25, graduated with my bachelor’s degree at 26, got married at 27, and received major promotions at work at 27, 29, and 31. None of those milestones in particular are defining criteria for adulthood, and none made me feel like an adult, but I began to embrace that title around 27 to 28.
As I read these chapters about emerging and young adulthood, I
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hoped to find a concrete answer to define what I feel unable to, but I found that it seems the one universal theme in defining adulthood is that it is a nebulous concept that varies between both different cultures and different individuals. In the textbook on page 435, Arnett and Jensen write, "...people in developed countries tend to view adulthood as occurring gradually, through the attainment of a variety of criteria that denote independence and self-sufficiency." The concepts of independence and self-sufficiency resonate with me, though I think that looks very different now in 2023 than it did in previous generations.
I found one particularly interesting piece from The Atlantic, titled, "When are you really an adult?" Julie Beck, the author, uses an example of Henry David Thoreau as a late bloomer who found his first professional success at age 31, before attempting to find a concrete definition of being an adult. Chronological age, physical development, legal definitions, cultural traditions, and education are all discussed as possible markers of adulthood, though they are each incomplete on their own.
Two of the topics from Beck's article resonated with me for my own definition of adulthood. First, the article talks about brain development which peaks around age 22 or 23, especially in terms of the prefrontal cortex and limbic system regulation. Second, Beck spoke
with our textbook author, Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, and he lists "the Big Three" criteria of adulthood as: "taking responsibility for yourself, making independent decisions, and becoming financially independent." What is interesting about these criteria are that they are subjective to the individual, when they feel responsible for themselves and when they feel they can make independent decisions. This is markedly different from the infancy, childhood, and adolescence milestones that clearly define developmental progress.
I loved the ending of Beck’s article where she writes, “Society can only define a life stage so far; individuals still have to do a lot of the defining themselves. Adulthood altogether is an Impressionist painting
—if you stand far enough away, you can see a blurry picture, but if you
press your nose to it, it’s millions of tiny strokes. Imperfect, irregular, but indubitably part of a greater whole.” I think that represents what I appreciate about adulthood more than any other stage of my life so far. Adulthood is the stage where we are more able to individually define what milestones and experiences are important to us. Citations:
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Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
. Pearson Education, Inc. Beck, J. (2016, January 5). When do you become an adult? The Atlantic
. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/01/when-
are-you-really-an-adult/422487/. Response #1
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Discussion Post #9
Due: 6/1/2023
Prompt
Late Adulthood
-Part 1: Ageism and General Attitudes about aging--
Ageism (described on page 559 of your textbook) is prejudice and discrimination based on age. Do you think this is a serious problem in the U.S.? How is it different elsewhere? How do you feel about aging? Reflect on any "ageist" attitudes that you may have--where did these attitudes originate in your experience? Does the reading from Chapters 11 and 12 in your textbook change any of your attitudes? More bluntly, are you afraid of aging and what are you doing about it? These questions require some significant thought, so include specific ideas with page references from the textbook along with other research, as well as your personal experiences and opinions. Part 2: Comparison and Application--From the Discovering Psychology video "Maturing and Aging," comment on how the video compares with the information in Chapter 12. Initial Post
According to an article from the American Psychological Association, "ageism is one of the last socially acceptable prejudices" (Weir, 2023). It seems that in the United States ageism is more pervasive yet less addressed than other forms of discrimination and prejudice.
A stark contrast to the experience of elders in the United States is that of those in Japan. As discussed on page 527 of the textbook, Japan holds late adulthood in much higher reverence than the developed Western countries, with a Respect for the Aged Day and kanreki rituals
around age 60 that celebrate a person's "new and respected status as an elder in the family and society" (Arnett & Jensen, 2019). A book excerpt from "Breaking the Age Code" by Becca Levy published in The Harvard Gazette provides a great visual of the dichotomy between the two cultures. Levy details her experience of her vivacious grandmother
briefly experiencing the negative impact of an ageist interaction with a
store clerk, contrasting that with a trip to Tokyo during Keiro No Hi, or Respect for the Aged Day. I found it fascinating to imagine an environment where aging is celebrated, rather than something to treat
or avoid at all costs. Levy details some of the positive impacts of the difference in cultural perceptions of the elderly, with Japanese women experiencing less severe symptoms of menopause than US women, and Japanese men having higher testosterone levels than those in Europe (Levy, 2022).
I don't fear aging, but it does give me pause at times. I think to the experiences of my own family members who have aged and passed away. On my mother's side, my grandmother died in her 50s of a heart
attack and my grandfather died in his late 70s after a stroke shortly after an Alzheimer’s diagnosis. My mother died in her mid-50s due to
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complications from cancer. My stepfather died in his early 60s from a heart attack. Seeing so many family members decline quickly with age,
some before they even reached late adulthood, does scare me. However, I know that I take much better care of my health, both physically and psychologically than my family members did, so I hope that I will live longer due to better maintenance, so to say. Seeing the impact that a lack of physical and cognitive activity has on physical and
cognitive decline, that "use it or lose it" phenomenon described in the Discovering Psychology video, helps drive me to prevent the negative impacts that can come with aging while embracing the positive.
In the Discovering Psychology video, Laura Carstensen's research on emotional experience and processing was briefly discussed. I appreciated that the text went into more detail on her work, specifically the socioemotional selectivity theory that older adults increase selectivity in their social contact which improves their emotional well-being (pp. 557-558). I have seen this practice play out myself as I choose not to engage in relationships which are negative or
harmful to my mental well-being, whereas when I was younger I felt obligation to maintain those relationships.
One other perspective from the Discovering Psychology video I found interesting was the statement made when discussing the social process of aging, where Phillip Zimbardo says, "History tells us of societies where the old were left to die when they could no longer contribute. In the United States, however, we now have more humane ways of abandoning the old. We put them in nursing homes where the
care, both physical and psychological, is often inadequate." This hit home for me, from the perspective of both my brief time working in a nursing home, as well as the experience of having my mom ultimately pass away in a nursing home. I absolutely hated working in a nursing home because the amount of work that was assigned to each person allowed no time for adequately caring for the physical needs of all the patients, let alone their psychological and social needs. I watched so many people’s health deteriorate because of the heaviness of losing their connections and their physical freedoms. I know that experience will shape how I connect with my patients as a nurse in the future. When my mom had to be moved to a nursing home due to the amount of care she needed, I made sure to visit her every day even when she wasn’t aware of her surroundings because I wanted to ensure she didn’t experience that same loneliness.
I could write at length about this topic and my feelings on the aging process due to the varying experiences I have lived alongside my
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family and observed. I will just end by saying that I am thankful to have the opportunity to think about this stage of life from a psychological perspective now in order to better prepare myself to live
a long and fulfilling life as I age.
Stefanie
Citations:
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
. Pearson Education, Inc. Levy, B. (2022, August 10). How America’s ageism hurts, shortens lives of elderly
. Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2022/08/how-
americas-ageism-hurts-shortens-lives-of-elderly/ Weir, K. (2023, March 1). Ageism is one of the last socially acceptable prejudices. psychologists are working to change that
. Monitor on Psychology. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2023/03/cover-
new-concept-of-aging Response #1
Posted: Elijah,
I like your description of emerging adulthood as a time where we develop and embrace the characteristics of "self-discipline, self-
sacrifice, and the ability to place oneself within the context of a larger society." I think that does a great job of summarizing the responsibilities that we take on during that developmental time, while still allowing for the variation that comes with that experience between different cultures, or even different individuals within similar cultures. As you said, with the addition of technology and the globalization that has brought over the last few decades, there are so many more options for what adulthood looks like. I think this is great in many ways. Looking back at my grandparents' generation, all of my grandmothers were stay at home parents who kept the household while my grandfathers worked. That was the primary option available to them at that time. I think of all the opportunities that I have now to have practically any career that I want, so long as I am willing to put in the work to get there. And thanks to the addition of technology, I've learned about so many different options that I would never have dreamed of before.
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I love how you describe some people's version of adulthood is being in
a perpetual state of emerging adulthood. I see that in my sister, as she is turning 24 this year and she still has a proclivity for the more reckless and impulsive decisions of emerging adulthood. I may just have to embrace that she may not change some of those behaviors even as she enters her 30s and 40s - and that may just be the adulthood that she chooses to live. Thank you for sharing about the experiences of your early 20s. It is wild to think about the things that we did and survived! It is funny how quickly that changes as well... It feels like just a couple years ago that I was able to stay out until 4 AM with friends and still make it to work at 7 AM. Now if I have too much coffee during the day, I can't get
enough sleep. And staying up until midnight on New Year's Eve is tough! Maybe that experience is the true sign of adulthood... :)
Stefanie
Response #2
Posted: Kiri,
I relate to your post SO much. You describe that impostor syndrome feeling of adulthood well. I am also in my 30s and have checked off many of the same life boxes, minus motherhood. I feel like an adult, and I know that society classifies me as an adult, but I still get those feelings where I am like a child in disguise and someone will eventually
come along and realize I have no idea what I am doing. I think that part of my struggle with embracing the title of adult comes
with how early I took on many of the responsibilities of adulthood. I started taking care of my sisters at 13 while my mom was ill, effectively
being a second mom. I started working at 16 and was fully responsible for myself shortly after high school graduation. Many of my peers didn't take their first job until after college, which is a completely foreign experience to me since I did not have the family support to be able to do that. It sounds like your experience was very similar. I think that taking on adult responsibilities while still being a teen has made me more judgmental when I see my peers or even those who are older
than me that do not manage adult responsibilities well. I have often thought, "I was doing this at 16, how can you not figure it out at 35," or something similar. I have to remind myself that everyone has different paths in life and different ways of reacting to their own individual experiences.
I also found it interesting that you mentioned your experience being a CNA. I was 18 when I first obtained my CNA license and worked at a
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nursing facility for about six months before I quit. There were numerous reasons that I left that job, but the underlying factor to them all was the overwhelming feeling of too much responsibility for the care of others at a young age. It absolutely felt too adult for me, even though I was considered very mature for my age. Returning to nursing later in life, I feel much more prepared to take on the responsibility of the profession and I think that the life experiences I have gained over the last 10+ years will help me become a much better nurse now than I would have been back then. It sounds like it will be a very similar journey for you, and I am sure you are going to make a fantastic nurse with all of the knowledge and experience you can bring to the table now!
Thank you for sharing!
Stefanie
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Discussion Post #10
Due: 6/8/2023
Prompt
Death, Dying, Bereavement: Death can be painful to the living loved ones, no matter what one's beliefs. Different time periods and different places deal with death quite differently. This is a topic that calls for deep and serious reflection. First, what have been your own experiences with death and loss? Furthermore, what are the experiences and expectations of your cultural group or family regarding death and bereavement and how do these compare with the explanations given in the text? As a second part of your reflection,
compare some of the rituals and meanings concerning death in different cultures (you choose which cultures) and evaluate how (and why) these rituals are different from your culture's/family's rituals. Do
the bereavement rituals of any culture strike you as particularly useful/effective, and why? You are certainly encouraged to bring outside sources--be sure to cite the sources and the relevant textbook pages.
Initial Post
As I've reflected on the reading and the topic of death and dying, I feel
that I should start with a disclaimer that this will probably be a very long post!
For my age, I think that I have experienced more deaths than the average individual. Both my parents (mom and stepdad) have passed away, along with my grandparents on both of their sides. I have also had close friends pass away, including the wife of one of my best friends and my "adopted" grandma. Many of the deaths have been health-related but each has differed in a way that provided a different perspective on the dying process. My stepdad’s death was relatively sudden. He had a heart attack during the summer and recovered well enough to return to normal life. He developed pneumonia a few months later and went to the hospital, ultimately passing from a major
heart attack within 24 hours. My mom had a slow decline in her functioning over two months, slowly going something being "off" cognitively to a comatose state before she passed. My "grandma" was diagnosed with stage 4 ovarian cancer, passing 6 months after her diagnosis. My friend's wife's death was sudden as she passed away in a car accident in her 40s.
As I reflect on each of these losses, they each provide a unique perspective that influences my thoughts on death and the process of dying. In the passing of my mom, stepdad, and grandma, I was able to say my final goodbyes to each of them.
My stepdad’s death was harder to accept initially as it was so sudden, but after his first heart attack, we had discussed the quality of life that
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he wanted to live. My stepdad was stubborn and independent, flat out
saying he would rather be put down like an animal than go into a nursing home. I was thankful to have the short time for most family to say goodbye before he passed quickly, which is what he ultimately wanted.
My grandma passed about three weeks after my dad. Her death was incredibly painful as her diagnosis was unexpected and her decline was so rapid. The experience of watching someone go from a lively, vibrant person and having cancer eat up every part of that person's being is indescribable. I am thankful that my grandma was able to have in-home hospice so that she was able to be as comfortable as possible when she passed away.
My mom's passing was the easiest to process, in a strange way. She was first diagnosed with bladder cancer and a metastasized brain tumor in 2003. When she went in for brain surgery, we were warned that her chances for surviving were slim. However, she survived not only surgery, but chemotherapy, radiation, and an additional surgery for her bladder. Over the years following, she had several instances where she would develop a fever and get incredibly sick, to the point that she would be hospitalized and we were warned that she may pass
away. Each time, our family had to prepare for the possibility that this would be the time she died. She recovered from multiple of those illnesses, each time a little more delayed physically and cognitively. When she became ill again and it was clear that she wouldn't recover, we were more prepared to handle the hospice process, though in a nursing home this time. Since we had been through both the grieving process for my mom several times, as well as the experience of saying goodbye to other family members when they passed, there was an overwhelming sense of peace that she was no longer in pain and suffering when she passed away. This experience was reflective of the anticipatory grief described on page 593 of the textbook.
My friend's wife's passing was incredibly difficult as her death occurred when she was incredibly young and it was so sudden. I was not as close to her as my family members, but I was there throughout the process to support my friend as he processed the loss of his life partner. Her death was a little sobering for me. We expect those older than us to eventually die - our parents, grandparents, and so on. We don't think of those our age dying so young or having our life with our significant other cut so short.
My family is not religious and we did not spend much time talking
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about death or the afterlife. We do not follow any particular rituals after death. I don't know what happens after we die, and I am okay with that. Perhaps because we have lost so many family members, we discuss death more openly in our family. We know what we want to happen when we pass and do our best to honor that after. Most of my family members have wanted cremated and to have their ashes spread
in places that were special to them. My stepdad’s ashes were spread on his family's property on the Oregon Coast where he grew up, while my mom's ashes were spread with my grandpa's on the Clackamas River where they used to go fishing. We still visit those places and share memories. In our discussions, my husband and I know that he wants to be buried while I want to be cremated and we want to be placed together in a natural burial ground, like White Eagle Memorial Preserve (
https://www.naturalburialground.org
).
I found it interesting to read about the ways that different religions remember those who have passed away. Hindus, Buddhists, and Christians all had practices involving offering food to the spirits of their
deceased loved ones and special times throughout the year to celebrate the dead, while the Jewish tradition of Yahrzeit involves lighting a candle and fasting. I also found the commonality between the Hindu, Buddhist, and Christian beliefs that spirits return to the earth at certain times of year fascinating (pp. 603-604). While we may not practice specific religious beliefs, we still have similar practices in my family of visiting the places where our family members are at rest, cooking favorite meals on birthdays, and getting together to look at pictures and reminisce about past memories of our loved ones.
I liked the last line of Chapter 13, where Arnett and Jensen write, "The death of someone we love is among the most difficult human experiences, and ritual ways of remembering those we have lost provide consolation and a mode of expression for the feelings that still
exist even though the person who inspired those feelings is with us no longer" (p. 605). I think that is exactly why I don't fear death - Though their physical bodies are gone and our loved ones are no longer here, I
still have my memories, my feelings, the behaviors and patterns that I have learned from all who shaped me. They live on through me and through the similar connections they have made with others. And someday, it will be my turn and my influence will live on through those
after me, so that motivates me to leave the most positive impact I can in the time I have on this earth, as that is what is in my control.
Stefanie
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Citations:
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach
. Pearson Education, Inc. Response #1
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